目次

1. A Language Like English. The Story of Aks. Language, LanguageEverywhere. The Power of Language. Name Calling. Judging by Ear. APuzzle: What Makes Us Hear an Accent? The System of Language. Arbitrarinessand Systematicity. A Scholar to Know: Ferdinand de Saussure. Creativity.Grammar. Linguistics. Human Language vs. Animal Communication. Birds andBees. Language and Society: Relevance of Brain Size. Chimps and Bonobos.Distinctive Characteristics of Human Language. The Process of LanguageChange. A Puzzle: Do Languages Have Families. Mechanics of Language Change.Progress or Decay? Attitudes about Language Change. Special Focus:Evolution of Human Language. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. 2.Language and Authority. Who Is in Control? Language Academies. LanguageAcademies. Language Mavens. Defining Standard English. Descriptive versusPrescriptive Grammar Rules. Case Study One: Double Negatives. Case StudyTwo: Ain't. Case Study Three: Who/Whom. Spoken versus Written Language. APuzzle: Which Is More Permanent? The Written or the Spoken Word? Languageand Society: Are We Losing Our Memories? Dictionaries of English. TheEarliest Dictionaries of English. The Beginnings of Modern Lexicography.Historical Lexicography. American Lexicography. A Question to Discuss:Should Dictionaries Ever Prescribe? English Grammar, Usage, and Style. TheEarliest Usage Books. Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Tendencies in Grammars ofEnglish. Modern Approaches to English Usage. Special Focus: CorpusLinguistics. Origins of Corpus Linguistics. Corpora Linguistics in theTwenty-first Century. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. 3. EnglishPhonology. Definitions of Phonetics and Phonology. The Anatomy of Speech.The International Phonetic Alphabet. English Consonants. Stops.Fricatives. Affricates. A Puzzle: Does English Have Initial/ /? Nasals.Language Variation at Work: Who Drops Their g's? Liquids and Glides.English Vowels. Front vowels. Back Vowels. Central Vowel(s). LanguageVariation and Change At Work: The cot/caught and pin/pen Mergers.Diphthongs. Natural classes. Phonemes and Allophones. Sample Allophones.Minimal Pairs. Phonological Rules. Assimilation. Deletion. Insertion.Metathesis. Language Change at Work: Is the Larynx Undergoing Metathesis?Syllables and Phonotactic Constraints. Perception of Sound. Special Focus:History of English Spelling. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. 4.English Morphology. Definition of Morphology. Open and Closed Classes ofMorphemes. A Puzzle: Exceptions to the Closedness of Closed Classes? Boundand Free Morphemes. Language Change at Work: Bound Morphines Becoming Free.Two Classes of Bound Morphemes: Inflectional and Derivational. LanguageChange at Work: The Origins of Inflectional --s. Affixes and CombiningForms. Morphology Trees. A Puzzle: What About Complex Words That Seems toHave Only One Morpheme? Ways of Forming English Words. Combining.Shortening. A Puzzle: Is It Clipping or Backformation? Blending. LanguageChange: Alice in Wonderland and the portmanteau. Shifting Frequency ofDifferent Word-Formation Processes. Language Change: Success Rates for NewWords. Borrowing and the Multicultural Vocabulary of English. A Puzzle:What's Wrong with Amorality? Special Focus: Slang and Creativity. Summary.Selected Reading. Exercises. 5. Syntax: The Grammar of Words. DefiningSyntax and Lexical Categories. Open Class Lexical Categories. LanguageChange at Work: Is it fish or fishes, oxen or oxes? Adjectives. A Puzzle:Am I good or well? Verbs. A Puzzle: Did I lie down or lay down? Adverbs.A Puzzle: If I do badly, why don't I run fastly? Closed Class LexicalCategories. Prepositions. A Puzzle: What is the up in call up?Conjunctions. Pronouns. Language Variation at Work: Himself, Hisself,Hisownself. Complementizers. Determiners. Auxiliary Verbs. Challenges toCategorization. A Puzzle: What can phonology reveal about modifying --ingforms? Noun modifiers. Special Focus: Descriptive Syntax and PrescriptiveRules. Hopefully. Split infinitive. Sentence-final prepositions.Its/it's. Singular generic 'they'. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises.6. Syntax: Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences. Generative Grammar. UniversalGrammar. A Scholar to Know: Noam Chomsky (1928 - ). Principles andParameters. Constituents and Hierarchies. Constituent Hierarchies. Clausesand Sentences. Constituency Tests. Phrase Structure Rules. Basic PhraseStructure Trees. Complex Phrase Structure Trees. Subordinate AdverbialClauses. Relative Clauses. Language Variation at Work: Which Is It, whichor that? Complementizer clauses. Reduced Subordinate Clauses. InfinitivePhrases. Gerund and Participial Phrases. A Puzzle: What Is the it in "It israining"? Transformations. wh-questions. Negation. Yes-no Questions. TagQuestions. Passive Constructions. A Question to Discuss: How did thispassive sentence get constructed? Relative Pronoun Deletion. Phrasal VerbParticle Movement. Does Generative Grammar Succeed? Special Focus: Syntaxand Prescriptive Grammar. Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences. Colons,Semi-Colons, and Comma Splices. Dangling Participles. Summary. SuggestedReading. Exercises. 7. Semantics. Definition of Semantics. The Limits ofReference. The Role of Cognition. The Role of Linguistic Context. APuzzle: How do Function Words Mean? The Role of Physical and CulturalContext. Language Change in Progress: The Formation of Idioms. A BriefHistory of Theories of Reference. Plato and Forms. Repairing Plato. FromReference to Discourse. From Reference to Translation. Lexical Fields.Hyponym to Homonym (and Other Nyms). Hyponomy. Meronymy. Synonymy. AQuestion to Discuss: Does the Thesaurus Have a Bad Name? Antonymy.Homonymy. A Language Puzzle: How Is the Mental Lexicon Organized?Componential Analysis. Prototype Semantics. Lexical Prototype Semantics.Analogical Mapping. Conceptual Metaphor. Processes of Semantic Change.Generalization and Specialization. Metaphorical Extension. Euphemism andDysphemism. Pejoration and Amelioration. The Intersection of Semantics andSyntax. Projection Rules. Thematic Roles. How Sentences Mean. LinguisticRelativity. Special Focus: Politically Correct Language. Summary.Suggested Reading. Exercises. 8. Spoken Discourse. Defining DiscourseAnalysis. Speech Act Theory: Accomplishing Things with Words. Scholars toKnow: John L. Austin (1911-1960) and John Searle (1932 - ). Components ofSpeech Acts. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts. Types of Illocutionary Acts.Performative Speech Acts. The Cooperative Principle: Successfully ExchangingInformation. Conversational Maxims. A Scholar to Know: Herbert Paul Grice(1913-1988). Conversational Implicature. A Question to Discuss: Entailmentand Implicature. Relevance. Politeness and "Face": NegotiatingRelationships in Speaking. Positive and Negative Politeness and Face.Face-Threatening Acts. Language and Society: The Power of Compliments.Discourse Markers: Signaling Discourse Organization and Authority. Functionof Discourse Markers. Types of Discourse Markers. Language Change at Work:Beowulf and Discourse Markers. Language Change at Work: Like, I was like,what is going on with the word like? Conversation Analysis: Taking Turns andthe Conversational Floor. Structure of Conversation. Turn-Taking.Turn-Taking Violations. Maintenance and Repair. Style Shifting:Negotiating Social Meaning. Indexical Meaning. Style and Creativity.Special Focus: Do Men and Women Speak Differently? Early Language and GenderResearch. Different Models for Gender Difference. Language and Society: DoMen Gossip? Queer Sociolinguistics. Language and Identity. Summary.Suggested Reading. Exercises. 9. Stylistics. Definition of Stylistics.Systematicity and Choice. The World of Texts: Genres and Registers.Defining Genre and Register. Variation among Text Types. Which Comes First...? Textual Unity: Cohesion. Defining Cohesion. Elements of Cohesion.Conjunction. Telling Stories: The Structure of Narratives. Definition ofNarrative. The Components of a Narrative. Investigating Speakers andPerspective. Varieties of Perspective. Speech: Direct and Indirect.Investigating Actions. Role of Action in Narrative. Action in Action.Attitudes in Action. Investigating Word Choice. Diction. Metaphor.Language in the News: Literary Forensics. Rhythm and Rhyme in Poetry.Poeticity and Its Axes. A Scholar to Know: Roman Jakobson (1896-1982).Meter, Rhythm, and Scansion. Prosody and Verse Structure. A Question toDiscuss: Meter Between the Words? Sound, Meaning, and Poetic Technique.Language Variation at Work: Hip Hop Rhymes. Special Focus: What Makes "GoodWriting"? Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. 10. LanguageAcquisition. Theories about Children's Language Acquisition. Noam Chomskyand Universal Grammar. Debates about Language "Hard Wiring". Language andthe Brain. Children Learning Sounds. Language Acquisition Tests.Acquisition of Phonemic Differences. Children Learning Words. Babbling andFirst Words. Language and the Brain: Imitating Faces. Language Variation atWork: Deaf Children Learning ASL. Language and the Brain: What Causes "TheTerrible Twos"? Acquisition of Word Meaning. Children Learning Grammar.Patterns of Children's Errors. Acquisition of Complex GrammaticalConstructions. Language and the Brain: What Explains Infantile Amnesia? TheRole of Parents in Language Acquisition. Features of Parentese. LanguageChange at Work: Reduplication. Role of Parentese. Language Acquisition inSpecial Circumstances. Pidgins and Creoles. Nicaraguan Sign Language.Critical Age Hypothesis. Is There an Age Critical Period? A Case Study:Genie. Acquisition of Languages Later in Life. When Things Go Wrong.Broca's Aphasia. Wernicke's Aphasia. Dyslexia. Special Focus: Children andBilingualism. Children Learning Two Languages. Bilingual EducationPrograms. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. 11. Language Variation.Dialect. Definition of Dialects. Dialects vs. Languages. A Question toDiscuss: Is American English a Dialect or a Language? Standard andNonstandard Dialects. Dialectology. Language Variation at Work: Pop vs.Soda. Variationist Sociolinguistics. A Scholar to Know: William Labov (1927- ). Sociolinguistics vs. Generative Grammar. Speech Communities andCommunities of Practice. Variationist Sociolinguistic Methodologies.Sampling. Soliciting Language. Analyzing Results. Ethical Issues. AQuestion to Discuss: Should We Preserve Dialects? Major Factors in LanguageVariation within Speech Communities. Age. Gender. Class. Race andEthnicity. Language Variation at Work: Chicano English. Social Networks.Effects of Language Contact. Dialect Contact. Language Contact. Pidginsand Creoles. Language in the News: The Myth of One Creole. SpeakerAttitudes and Language Variation. A Question to Discuss: What Does"Linguistic Equality" Mean? Special Focus: Code-switching. Summary.Suggested Reading. Exercises. 12. American Dialects. The Politics ofAmerican Dialects. Who Speaks a Dialect? Speakers Who Control MultipleDialects. Judgments and Humor about Dialects. Dialect Diversity andNational Unity. Language Variation at Work: The Inconsistency of LanguageAttitudes. Regional Variation. A Sample Walk. Language Variation at Work:Why does 'unless' mean 'in case' in Pennsylvania? Defining Regions. TheEmergence of Regional Dialects. General Principles. Retention. LanguageVariation at Work: Regional Food Terms. Naturally Occurring InternalLanguage Change. Language Contact. Language Variation at Work: A Dragonflyby Any Other Name. Coining. Social factors. The History of RegionalDialects in the United States. The Beginnings of American English. TheNorthern Dialect Region. The Southern Dialect Region. The Midland Region.The Western Region. Dialects within Dialect Regions. Appalachian Speech: ACase Study of Regional Variation. Phonological Features. Morphological andSyntactic Features. Lexical Features. Language Variation at Work: Jack,Will, and Jenny in the Swamp. Social Variation. Slang and Jargon versusDialects. Social Dialects. African American English: A Case Study of SocialVariation. Historical Origins. Phonological Features. Morphological andSyntactic Features. Lexical Features. Special Focus: The EbonicsControversy. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. 13. History ofEnglish: Old to Early Modern English. Old English (449-1066 c.e.): Historyof Its Speakers. When Did English "Begin"? Which Germanic Dialect Is "OldEnglish"? Language Change at Work: How English Was Written Down. Where Dothe Names English and England Originate? Old English Lexicon. LatinBorrowing. Old Norse Borrowing. Native English Word Formation. Old EnglishGrammar. The Origins of Modern English Noun Inflections. The Gender ofThings. The Familiarity of Personal Pronouns. The Many Faces of Modifiers.The Origins of Some Modern English Irregular Verbs. Variation in Word Order.Middle English (1066-1476 c.e.): History of Its Speakers. The NormanConquest. A Scholar to Know: J. R. R. Tolkien the Philologist. The Renewalof English. The Emergence of a Standard. Middle English Dialects. TheMiddle English Lexicon. French Borrowing. Latin Borrowing. OtherBorrowing. Word Formation Processes. Middle English Grammar. The Loss ofInflections and Its Effects. The Inflections that Survive. Early ModernEnglish (1476-1776 c.e.): History of Its Speakers. The Printing Press. TheStudy of English. A Piece of History: The Fire at Ashburnham House. EarlyModern English Lexicon. Greek and Latin Borrowing. Romance Borrowing.Semantic Change in the Native Lexicon. Affixation. Early Modern EnglishGrammar. Older Grammatical Retentions. Developments in Morphosyntax.Language Change at Work: The Invention of pea. The Fate of Final --e.Language Change at Work: The Great Vowel Shift. Looking Ahead. Summary.Suggested Reading. Exercises. 14. History of English: Modern and FutureEnglish. Modern English (1776 -- Present): Social Forces at Work.Prescription and the Standard Variety. The Media. Imperialism.Globalization. Language Change at Work: The Debated Origins of O.K. ModernEnglish: Language Change in Progress. Word Formation. Lexical Borrowing.Phonological Changes. Grammatical Changes. The Status of English in theUnited States. A Piece of History: The Myth of the "German Vote" in 1776.States with English Plus Resolutions: New Mexico (1989), Oregon (1989), RhodeIsland. (1992), Washington (1989). A Question to Discuss: Official StateLanguages. The Status of English around the World. The Meaning of a "GlobalLanguage". English as a Global Language. World English's. The Future ofEnglish as a Global Language. What Happens After Modern English? Englishand the Internet. Summary. Suggested Reading. Exercises. Bibliography.Glossary. Index.