内容

目次

1 The study of evidence for natural selection.- 1.1 The birth of evolutionary biology.- 1.2 Developments from 1910 to 1959.- 1.3 The modern synthesis and its critics.- 1.4 The measurement of fitness.- 1.5 Quantitative and polymorphic variation.- 1.6 Varieties of data on natural selection.- 1.7 Sampling problems.- 2 Mark&—recapture experiments.- 2.1 The use of mark—recapture experiments.- 2.2 The multi-sample single recapture experiment.- 2.3 Combining and comparing survival estimates.- 2.4 The constant survival —constant recapture probability model.- 2.5 Initial lack of catchability.- 2.6 The design of experiments.- 2.7 A common probability of capture model.- 2.8 The varying selective values model.- 2.9 The constant selective values model.- 2.10 Comparison of the models.- 2.11 Mark—recapture experiments in general.- 2.12 Separating death from emigration.- 2.13 Deriving fitness estimates from survival estimates.- 3 Samples taken from a population within one generation.- 3.1 Sampling a population while selective survival is occurring.- 3.2 Selection on a polymorphic population.- 3.3 The intensity and effect of selection on a polymorphic population.- 3.4 Tests for changes in distributions of quantitative variables.- 3.5 Estimating a quadratic fitness function.- 3.6 Selection on a univariate normal distribution.- 3.7 Selection on a multivariate normal distribution.- 3.8 Selection on a non-normal population.- 3.9 The variance of fitness estimates.- 3.10 The case of stabilizing selection.- 3.11 Karl Pearson’s work and developments from it.- 3.12 The intensity and effect of selection on quantitative variables.- 3.13 The problem of growth.- 4 Comparison of live and dead animals.- 4.1 Comparing distributions for live and dead animals.- 4.2 Samples from a large population with known morph proportions.- 4.3 Samples of dead animals compared with a population sample.- 4.4 Analyses developed for bird banding data.- 4.5 A log-linear model for a decreasing population.- 4.6 Explicit survival estimation with a constant recovery probability.- 4.7 Estimation of a relative death rate function.- 4.8 The intensity and effect of selection.- 5 Complete counts of survivors.- 5.1 Selection on a countable population.- 5.2 Models for selection on quantitative variables.- 5.3 The proportional hazards model.- 5.4 Graphical analysis of the proportional hazards model.- 5.5 The case of stabilizing selection.- 5.6 The Chesson—Manly model for competitive survival.- 5.7 Estimation with a constant population.- 5.8 Estimation with a decreasing population.- 5.9 Hard or soft selection?.- 5.10 The intensity and effect of selection.- 6 Evidence from the spatial distribution of a population.- 6.1 Factors affecting animal distributions.- 6.2 Analyses ignoring spatial patterns.- 6.3 A chi-square randomization test on grouped colonies.- 6.4 An alternative chi-square approach for grouped colonies.- 6.5 The use of multiple regression.- 6.6 The problem of unequal sample sizes.- 6.7 The use of standard methods of multivariate analysis.- 6.8 The Mantel nonparametric test.- 6.9 Constructing distance matrices.- 6.10 Spurious test results due to isolation by distance.- 6.11 The evidence from spatial patterns alone.- 6.12 Analysis of spatial patterns by spatial autocorrelation.- 6.13 The Kluge—Kerfoot phenomenon.- 7 Association between related species.- 7.1 Patterns of species association.- 7.2 Borowsky’s test for parallel variation.- 7.3 Alternatives to Borowsky#x2019;s test.- 7.4 Determining ‘adequate’ sample sizes from colonies.- 7.5 Comparison between allopatric and sympatric colonies.- 7.6 Overall gene frequency comparisons between species.- 8 Gene frequency changes at a single genetic locus.- 8.1 The introduction of genetic considerations.- 8.2 Two alleles at a single locus.- 8.3 Hardy—Weinberg equilibrium.- 8.4 Selection on a randomly mating population.- 8.5 A test for selection.- 8.6 Estimation of selective values: no dominance, samples after selection.- 8.7 Estimation of selective values: no dominance, samples before selection.- 8.8 Estimation of selective values: dominance, samples before selection.- 8.9 Estimation from samples several generations apart.- 8.10 Estimation of selective values: dominance, samples after selection.- 8.11 Estimation from samples after selection several generations apart.- 8.12 A note of caution.- 8.13 Estimation of selective values in general.- 8.14 Maximum likelihood estimation with the dominance selection model.- 8.15 Maximum likelihood estimation with several alleles.- 8.16 Estimating the effective population size.- 8.17 Different selective effects on males and females.- 8.18 Analysis of phenotype frequencies.- 9 Equilibrium gene frequencies at a single locus.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 The estimation of gene frequencies.- 9.3 Maximum likelihood estimation by gene counting.- 9.4 Variances and covariances for gene frequency estimators.- 9.5 Tests for Hardy—Weinberg gene frequency ratios.- 9.6 Hardy—Weinberg tests with two alleles.- 9.7 Limitations of Hardy—Weinberg tests.- 9.8 The Ewens—Watterson test.- 9.9 The Ewens—Watterson test on a subdivided population.- 9.10 The nature of electrophoretic data.- 9.11 Charge-state models.- 9.12 Population samples including mother-offspring combinations.- 10 Linkage disequilibrium and selection at two or more loci.- 10.1 Random mating with two loci.- 10.2 Linkage disequilibrium as evidence of selection.- 10.3 Estimation of linkage disequilibrium from gamete frequencies.- 10.4 Maximum likelihood estimation of linkage disequilibrium from genotype frequencies.- 10.5 Burrows’s estimator of linkage disequilibrium.- 10.6 Multi-locus disequilibrium.- 10.7 Estimation of selective values for two loci by Turner’s method.- 10.8 Multiple locus estimation of selective values in general.- 11 Selection on quantitative variables.- 11.1. Quantitative genetics.- 11.2 The effects of direct selection on a character.- 11.3 Correlated characters.- 11.4 Natural selection.- 11.5 Fitness functions.- 11.6 Nonparametric tests for natural selection.- 11.7 A regression model allowing for random genetic drift.- 11.8 Lande’s models for long-term evolution.- 11.9 Multivariate extensions to Lande’s models.- 11.10 Selection in marginal populations.- 12 Further analyses using genetic data.- 12.1 Associations between blood groups and diseases.- 12.2 Selection on an age-structured population.- 12.3 The index of opportunity for selection.- 12.4 Admixture studies.- 12.5 Other tests on many loci.- 12.6 The molecular clock hypothesis.- 13 Non-random mating and sexual selection.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Male or female choice experiments.- 13.3 Multiple choice experiments.- 13.4 Data from natural populations.- 13.5 O’Donald’s models for sexual selection.- 14 Concluding remarks.- 14.1 Difficulties in interpreting evidence for selection.- 14.2 Difficulties in taking large enough samples.- 14.3 Simulation models.- Statistical appendix.- A.1 The statistics of quantitative variation.- A.2 The statistics of polymorphic variation.- A.3 The method of maximum likelihood.- A.4 Chi-square likelihood ratio tests.- A.5 Taylor series approximations for biases, variances and covariances.- A.6 Weighted means with minimum variance.- A.7 Multiple linear regression.- A.8 Weighted regression.- A.9 Generalized least squares.- A.10 The computer program GLIM.- A.11 Fitting the proportional hazards model to data.- A.12 A computer program for a randomization test on polymorphic data.- A.13 A computer program for Mantel’s test.- A.14 A computer program for Borowsky’s test.- A.15 Fisher’s method for combining independent test results.- A.16 The computer program MAXLIK: General.- A.17 The computer program MAXLIK: FREQ subroutine (a).- A.18 The computer program MAXLIK: FREQ subroutine (b).- A.19 A computer program for the Ewens—Watterson test.- References.- Name Index.