内容

目次

Preface 1 Galaxies: an overview 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 A briefhistory of galactic astronomy 2 Photometric models of the Milky Way 5The nature of the spiral nebulae 10 Kinematic models of the Milky Way 15Stellar populations 20 More recent developments 21 2 AstronomicalMeasurements 2.1 Positions, motions and coordinate systems 27 Theequatorial system 27 Galactic coordinates 30 Parallax 31 Propermotions 34 Precession and nutation 35 Astrometric systems 37 2.2Distances determined from velocities 38 Radial velocities 39 Distancesfrom the movingcluster method 40 Secular parallaxes 42 Statisticalparallaxes 45 2.3 Magnitudes and colors 46 Apparent magnitudes 47Colors 52 Absolute magnitudes 56 Absolute energy distributions andbolometric magnitudes 58 Mass-to-light ratios 60 Surface brightness andisophotal radii 61 2.4 Gravitational lensing 62 2.5 Archival data andcatalogs 67 On-line resources 71 Problems 74 3 The Properties of Stars3.1 The masses of stars 76 The Mass of the Sun 77 Masses of binarystars 78 Visual binaries 78 Spectroscopic binaries 79 3.2 The radii ofstars 82 Phase interferometry 82 Intensity interferometry 83Speckle interferometry 83 Lunar occultations 84 Eclipsing binaries 84Astrophysical estimates 86 3.3 Classification of stars 87 Novae 87Pulsars 87 Classification of stellar spectra 88 The MK system 90 3.4Physical interpretation of stellar spectra 94 3.5 Color-magnitude diagrams102 Observed CM-diagrams 103 Luminosity and color as functions ofspectral class 104 The physical properties of stars on the MS and RGB 1093.6 The stellar luminosity function 109 Malmquist bias 111 Lutz-KelkerBias 115 The general luminosity function 119 Cluster luminosityfunctions 119 Photometrically complete surveys 119 Proper-motionselected surveys 120 The luminosity function of a given MK spectral class127 Catalogs of the nearby stars 130 3.7 Interstellar dust 131Extinction and reddening 133 Reddening-free indices 138 Polarization ofstarlight by dust 140 Extinction of sightlines out of the Galaxy 140Problems 143 4 Morphology of Galaxies 4.1 Morphological classification ofgalaxies 146 The Hubble sequence 149 Effects of environment 157 Thegalaxy luminosity function 162 The field galaxy luminosity function 162The cluster galaxy luminosity function 165 The luminosity function dividedby morphological type 167 The Local Group 169 4.2 Surface Photometry ofGalaxies 172 The night sky 173 Effect of seeing 176 Deprojectinggalaxy images 179 4.3 Photometry of Elliptical Galaxies 185 Radialsurface-brightness profiles of elliptical galaxies 185 cD galaxies 186Dwarf elliptical galaxies 190 Centers of elliptical galaxies 191 Colorand line-strength gradients in elliptical galaxies 193 Shapes ofelliptical galaxies 194 Ellipticity 194 Deviations from ellipses 199Fine structure 201 Correlations among global parameters of ellipticalgalaxies 204 The D&lt;sub&gt;n - [Sigma]&lt;sub&gt;0 correlation 209Dwarf elliptical galaxies 209 4.4 Photometry of Disk Galaxies 210Photometric effects of dust 211 Overall shapes of disk galaxies 212Bulge-disk decomposition 214 Shapes of bulges 222 Color and metallicitygradients in disk galaxies 223 Spiral structure in disk galaxies 224Barred galaxies 228 Vertical structure of bars 231 Rings in SB galaxies233 Dust lanes in SB galaxies 234 Lop-sidedness in SB galaxies 234 4.5Globular cluster systems 235 Globular cluster luminosity function 236Specific frequency of globular clusters 237 Radial density profiles andshapes 238 Color distributions 239 4.6 Abnormal galaxies 241Starbursting systems 241 Systems with active galactic nuclei 244 Hostgalaxies of AGN 250 The unified model of AGN 251 Problems 255 5Evolution of Stars and Stellar Populations 5.1 Stellar evolution and the CMdiagram 259 Placing models in the CM diagram 262 Features in the CMdiagram 263 Characteristic initial masses 267 Bounding curves in the CMdiagram 274 Dependence of CM diagrams upon metallicity 276 The cosmichelium abundance 279 Simple numerical relations 279 Star formation 281The initial mass function 283 Pulsating stars 287 Classical Cepheidvariables 289 Mira variables 292 W Virginis stars 293 RR Lyrae stars293 5.2 Synthesis of the chemical elements 296 Basic nuclear physics 296Metal production at M&lt;sub&gt;i < M&lt;sub&gt;up 301 Supernovae 302Metal production by core-collapse supernovae 303 Metal production by typeIa supernovae 305 5.3 Models of chemical enrichment 306 The closed-boxmodel 306 The leaky-box model 308 The accreting-box model 313 5.4Evolution of stellar populations 314 Analytical results 315 Numericalmodels of population evolution 317 Problems 324 6 Star clusters 6.1Globular clusters 327 Globular cluster stellar photometry 332Color-magnitude diagrams 334 The main sequence and subgiant branch 335The horizontal branch 337 Comparison with Theoretical CM diagrams 339Globular cluster ages 344 Turnoff point ages 344 Isochrone fitting 345The [Delta]V method 346 The [Delta](B-V) 347 Comparison with the ageof the Universe 348 Variations in age 349 Metallicities of globularclusters 350 [Omega] Cen 351 The third parameter problem 352Variations in helium abundance 353 Variations in other element abundances353 Other candidates 354 Luminosity functions 354 Binary stars 359Stellar remnants 361 White dwarfs 361 Neutron stars 362 Radialprofiles 363 Large-scale properties 365 Luminosity segregation 367Central cusps 369 Kinematics 371 Velocities of individual stars 371Integrated-light kinematics 374 Proper motions 375 6.2 Open clusters 377Color-magnitude diagrams 381 The ages and demise of open clusters 384Structure and kinematics 386 Luminosity function 389 Problems 392 7 TheCosmic Distance Scale 7.1 An introduction to cosmology 396 7.2 Absolutedistance estimators 399 The Baade-Wesselink method 399 Application tosupernovae 402 The Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect 403 Distances from timedelays 405 The ring around Supernova 1987A 406 Gravitational lens timedelays 407 Water-maser proper-motions by VLBI 410 7.3 Relative distanceestimators 414 Luminosities of variable stars 415 Luminosity functions415 Globular clusters 416 Planetary nebulae 417 Novae and supernovae419 Novae 419 Type Ia supernovae 420 Distances from galaxykinematics 422 Spiral galaxies 422 Elliptical galaxies 425 Surfacebrightness fluctuations 426 7.4 Results 429 Distances within the LocalGroup 432 Distance to the Galactic center 432 Distance to the LargeMagellanic Cloud 434 Distance to M31 435 Distances beyond the LocalGroup 437 Distance to the Virgo Cluster 437 Peculiar velocity field 439The asymptotic Hubble constant 441 The deceleration parameter andcosmic density 444 Standard candles and rulers 444 Peculiar velocityfield 447 Problems 449 8 The Interstellar Media of Galaxies 8.1 Howinterstellar matter is detected 452 Absorption of starlight 452 ExtremeUV and Xray observations 459 Optical emission lines 463 Hydrogen lines463 Metal lines 464 Radio observations 468 The 21-cm line of atomichydrogen 471 Rotation transitions of heteronuclear molecules 474Synchrotron radiation 478 Radio-frequency bremsstrahlung and recombinationlines 480 Dispersion and Rotation Measures 481 Gamma-ray emission 482Radiation by dust 483 8.2 The ISM in Disk Galaxies 488 Global measures493 HI and H&lt;sub&gt;2 in disk galaxies 493 Radio-continuum and IRluminosities 496 Radial density profiles 498 Azimuthal distributions500 Bars and oval distortions 500 Spiral structure 500 Lop-sidedness502 Velocity fields of disks 505 Circular-speed curves 507 Kinematicwarps 510 Oval distortions 512 S0 galaxies 513 Metallicities of diskgalaxies 516 Magnetic fields 520 Star formation in disk galaxies 5228.3 The ISM in elliptical galaxies 525 X-ray emitting plasma 525 Coolgas in ellipticals 527 8.4 Intergalactic gas 530 The Magellanic Stream530 Problems 533 9 The Milky Way's ISM 9.1 The kinematics of differentialrotation 536 The naive (l,v) plot 536 Radii and distances from the(l,v) plot 540 Non-circular motion and the (l,v) plot 541 Axisymmetricexpansion 541 Oval distortions 542 Spiral structure 544 Randommotions 546 9.2 The large-scale distribution of HI and CO 549 The 21-cmline in emission 549 Measuring the spin temperature 553 CO lines inemission 554 The Milky Way's circular-speed curve 555 Radialdistributions of HI and CO 559 Evidence for spiral structure 561Vertical distributions of HI and CO 562 The middle disk 563 The outerdisk 565 9.3 Other tracers of the ISM 570 Diffuse infrared emission 570Pulsars and the Galactic magnetic field 574 Diffuse H[Alpha] radiation576 Diffuse synchrotron and Gamma-radiation 577 Diffuse X-rays 579 9.4The central disk 580 21-cm observations 580 Observations in lines of COand CS 586 A dynamical model of the central disk 588 9.5 The nucleus 5949.6 Small-scale structure of the ISM 597 Molecular gas in the Galaxy 598X from virial masses 601 X from Gamma-rays 601 X from A&lt;sub&gt;v602 Problems 603 10 Components of the Milky Way 10.1 Gross Structure fromSurface Photometry 609 The Galaxy at optical wavelengths 614 10.2 Thebulge 616 Integrated surface photometry 616 Evidence for a bar fromindividual stars 619 Age and metallicity of the bulge 621 Bulgekinematics 622 10.3 Kinematics of stars near the Sun 624 The solar motion624 Random velocities of stars 629 Vertex deviation 630 TheSchwarzschild distribution 632 Star streams 634 Causes of vertexdeviation 636 The Oort constants 637 Estimating the Oort constants 64110.4 The structure of the stellar disk 643 Ages and metallicities ofnearby stars 643 Correlations between abundances 643 Correlationsbetween age and abundance 644 The old disk clusters 651 Star counts andthe thick disk 651 The thick disk 654 The local mass density of thedisk 656 Distribution of the youngest stars 664 10.5 The halo 666 Theglobular cluster system 666 Field halo stars 670 Kinematically selectedsamples 673 10.6 Galaxy models 678 The local circular speed 679 Massmodels 680 Starcount models 682 Kinematic models 683 Dynamicalmodels 683 10.7 Formation and evolution of the Milky Way 684 Formationscenarios 684 Models of the chemical evolution of the Milky Way 688Chemical evolution of the halo 688 Pre-enrichment 688 Problems 690 11Stellar Kinematics in External Galaxies 11.1 Measuring the kinematics ofexternal galaxies 694 Mean velocities and velocity dispersions 697Analysis of line profiles 700 Position-velocity diagrams and data cubes705 11.2 The stellar kinematics of elliptical galaxies 707 Large-scaleproperties 707 Major-axis kinematics 707 Detection of dark halos 712Kinematic mapping 713 Core properties 716 Decoupled cores 716Detection of central black holes 717 11.3 The stellar kinematics of diskgalaxies 722 Bulge kinematics 723 Disk kinematics 724 Rotationalmotion 725 Random motions 727 Problems 730 Appendices A. Gravitationaldeflection of light 732 B. Important astronomical catalogs 736 C.Richardson-Lucy deconvolution 743 D. Useful numbers 744 References Index<br