内容

目次

1. The Problem.- I. Introduction: Problems and Sources.- 1. The Divided World of Philosophy.- 2. The Methodenstreit in the Humanities and the Social Sciences.- 3. Recent Publications in Traditional Logic: German Idealism and “Dialectics”.- 4. Recent Publications: neo-Thomistic Logic. What-Logic and Relating-Logic.- 5. “Pure Logic” as the Theory of Identity.- 6. The Status of Aristotelian Syllogistic from the Point of View of Contemporary Logic.- 7. The Locke-Berkeley Problem and Fregean Logic.- 8. The Dialogical Formulation of Fregean Elementary Logic.- 9. The Critical Study of Applied Conceptual Structures: a Logical Discipline.- Notes.- II. Naming What is.- 1. A First Acquaintance with Concrete Universal Terms.- 2. The Logophore.- 3. Husserl on Definite Articles.- 4. Definition of “Logophoric Uses” of the Articles and of Other Operators by which Substantives are Formed.- 5. The H-Thesis.- 6. Examples.- Notes.- III. The Semantics of the Logical Constants.- 1. Introduction and Elimination of Logical Constants.- 2. The Meanings of “an Arbitrary S”.- 3. The Problem of the Eliminability of Logophoric Articles and of their Meaning in Discussions.- 4. Von Freytag’s Treatment of das M ist P.- 5. Are Logophoric Judgments in some Cases Real Definitions?.- 6. Are Logophoric Judgments in some Cases a Kind of Modal Judgments?.- 7. Some Introductory Remarks on the Definite Article in Contemporary Logic.- 8. Is the “Pure Logic” a Completed Science?.- Notes.- 2. Historical Survey.- IV. From the History of the Logic of Indefinite Propositions.- 1. Introductory Remarks.- 2. Aristotle’s ???ó???o?.- 3. Propositiones indefinitae in the Logic of the Schoolmen.- 4. Suppositio simplex and suppositio personalis: William of Sherwood.- 5. Suppositio simplex and suppositio personalis: Peter of Spain.- 6. The Theory of suppositio as a Theory of Types.- 7. Mobility and the Logic of General Terms.- 8. The Logic of the Grammatical Singular.- 9. Indicating suppositio by means of Articles.- 10. Indefinita - determinata - indeterminata and the Contemporary uncertainty with Respect to Definite and Indefinite Articles.- 11. Suppositio determinata and Statements of Existence.- 12. Logophoric Value Judgments and suppositio simplex.- 13. Articles Analysed in Terms of Quantifiers: from suppositio simplex to suppositio personalis by means of Polyadic Predication.- 14. “Philosophical” suppositio: suppositio naturalis.- 15. Arguments with Indefinite Premisses in the Logic of the Renaissance: Ramus and Keckermann.- 16. New Foundations: Hospinianus.- 17. Leibniz.- 18. From Wolff to Überweg: ?ó????o? and the Theory of Negation.- 19. Wundt on Logic as the Study of Indefinite Magnitudes.- 20. Are Logophoric Judgments ???ó????o??.- 21. “Absolute” and “Relative” Judgments with “Logical” suppositio in Pfänder’s Logic.- 22. Hering and the Problem of the General Lion.- 23. Propositions indéfinies in the Logique de Port-Royal. Connection with ‘definitio rei’ in Case of a universalité métaphysique.- 24. Exceptions Possible in Case of a universalité morale.- 25. Archbishop Whately’s Perplexity.- 26. Mill as the Heir of Whately: Rejection of Real Definitions.- 27. “The Most Perfect Exposition of Classical Logic”: Keynes.- 28. A Twentieth Century “Philosophical” Logic on Indefinite Propositions and suppositio naturalis: Maritain.- 29. Suppositio naturalis throughout the Centuries.- 30. Reduplicative Propositions: “in so far as” and “as such”.- (i) Reduplicative Propositions.- (ii) Specificatory Propositions.- (iii) Analysis of Specificatory Propositions as Reduplicative Propositions.- Notes.- V. From the History of the Logic of Individual Propositions.- 1. Introductory Remarks about the Use of the Words “Singular” and “Individual”.- 2. Aristotle on Individual Propositions and the Doctrine of ekthesis.- 3. Comparison with Indefinite Propositions in the Organon.- 4. Expository Syllogisms.- 5. Exposition and exemplum in the Logic of the Renaissance.- (i) Influence from Rhetoric.- (ii) Exemplum and similitudo.- (iii) When is an Argument from an exemplum Logically Valid?.- (iv) The Third Figure.- (v) Why were Third Figure Expository Syllogisms Rejected?.- 6. Melanchton’s Example.- 7. The Ramistic Modes.- 8. Hospinianus.- 9. The vis universalis of Singular Propositions.- 10. Leibniz.- 11. Wolff: Definite Descriptions and the dictum de omni.- 12. Kant.- 13. Lambert and the dictum de exemplo. Comparison with Melanchton.- 14. Hegel.- 15. Herbart.- 16. Comparison between the Traditional Theory of Definite Descriptions and Russell’s Theory: Analogy Instead of Identity.- 17. Singular Propositions in the Logic of Maritain.- 18. The Logical Form of Individual Propositions with Definite Descriptions as Grammatical Subject: Russell.- 19. Replacing Proper Names by Descriptions.- 20. Identification by Description.- Notes.- VI. Singular - General - Indefinite.- 1. Logophoric Judgments as Singular Judgments.- 2. Primitive Paradigmatic Logic.- 3. Primitive Paradigmatic Logic Rejected by Pfänder.- 4. Two Kinds of Definite Article with a Generalizing Function. Comparison with Maritain.- 5. Pfänder on the Limitations of Traditional Syllogistic.- 6. A Theory of Entailment?.- 7. The Problem of Relative Generic Judgments and the Variable Copula.- 8. Comparison with Lotze, Sigwart and Jerusalem.- 9. The Relativity of Relative Generic Judgments.- 10. Exemplum and the Method of Variation.- 11. Relation, Analogy, Paradigm: “a Glimpse of Chaos”.- 12. Conclusions.- 13. Glimpses of Grammar.- (i) Jespersen on the Arbitrary Generic Person.- (ii) Negative Indefinite Sentences.- (iii) Singularis - pluralis - indifferentialis.- Notes.- VII. The Identity Theories of the Copula.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Extensional Identity Theories of the Copula.- 3. The Inherence Theory of the Copula.- 4. Comprehensional Identity Theories of the Copula: Logic as the Study of Indefinite Propositions.- 5. Schematic Survey.- 6. Expected Properties of the Notions of Identity and Partial Identity in Traditional Logic.- 7. Fichte’s Logic: a Symmetric Copula.- 8. Reflexivity of the Copula.- 9. Transitivity of the Copula.- 10. Two Kinds of Logical Identity.- 11. Identity-Logic and Contradiction-Logic.- (i) Two Senses of “Logic of Identity”.- (ii) Plato’s Paradox.- 12. Neo-Platonic Fichtean Logic (NPF-logic). The Intensive Identity Theory of the Copula (id-logic).- 13. Later German Traditional Logic and its Relation to the NPF-Logic.- 14. The Traditional Restriction to Symmetric Non-Logical Relations.- (i) Fichte.- (ii) Maritain.- (iii) Modalities and Relations: “Intensional” Logic.- (iv) Aristotle’s Principle of the Absolute.- 15. The Theory of the Copula and Reduplication in Individual Propositions.- 16. A Necessary Condition for id-Logic: Weak Identity-Concepts and Leibniz’s Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles.- (i) Preliminary Remarks.- (ii) Leibniz’s Weak Notion of Identity: Complete Equality (CE).- (iii) PIi: the Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles.- 17. From Opaque Similarity (Analogy) to Strong Identity.- (i) Analogy of two Terms Defined as Opaque Similarity.- (ii) A Principle of the Non-Distinction of the Distinct (PND).- 18. From Opaque Similarity to Weak Identity.- 19. Similarity, Equality, and Identity in Later German Traditional logic.- 20. “Is” and “The”: the Need for an id-logical Continuum of Articles or Copulas in order to Distinguish Degrees of Essential Identity.- 21. Id-Logic as Topological Logic.- 22. Concept-Pyramids and Internal Relations: Topological Logic of Internal Genera and Species.- 23. The Thesis of id-Existence.- 24. Partial Identities: Wundt.- 25. Husserl on Identity and Relational Predicates.- 26. Partial Identities in Pfänder’s Logic.- 27. Revolt Against the Intensive Identity-Theory: Lotze on the Copula and the General Dog.- 28. Rejection of Partial Identities: Sigwart.- 29. Conclusion.- 30. Appendix: Veatch on Identity and Senility.- Notes.- 3. Descent.- VIII. Argument by Analogy.- 1. Introductory Remarks.- 2. The Argument by Analogy.- 3. The Logophoric Indefinite Major Premiss.- 4. Analysis of Simple Arguments by Analogy.- 5. Reduction to Two Premisses.- 6. Hegel’s Stress on the Importance of Form.- 7. The Limitation to Three Terms.- 8. The Tautological Premiss.- 9. Analogical Terms and Analogical Language.- 10. Application of the Ockham-Wallis-Kant-Wolff Reduction to the Argument by Analogy.- 11. Burburu.- 12. The Imperfectness of the Argument by Analogy and the Problem of Dependability.- 13. A Comparison between Hegel’s and Mill’s Analyses of the Example of the Inhabited Earth.- 14. A Contemporary Interpreter of Hegel on the Argument by Analogy.- 15. Interpretation of Hegel’s Argument by Analogy.- 16. Why the Fourth Term cannot be Expressed.- 17. Arguments by Necessity.- 18. Either-or and definitio rei.- 19. Descent to the Moon.- 20. Contempt for the Counter-Example.- (i) The Situation in Hegel’s Logic.- (ii) The Logical Problem and its Solution.- 21. Deontic Logic and the Logic of Potentiality.- 22. The Theory of Formal Signs.- 23. Comparison between Hegel, Pfänder, Maritain, and Veatch.- Notes.- IX. The Problem of the Logic of Relations and its Connection with the Logic of the Articles.- 1. Introductory Remarks.- 2. Wundt on Relations and Language.- 3. The Auxiliary Rule of Concept Comparison: Unlimited Reification and Proliferation of Articles.- (i) Wundt.- (ii) Husserl.- 4. Arguments by Analogy.- 5. From “Resembles” to “Is”: a Transition into Mysticism.- 6. Neglect of the Articles in Descriptions and the Exact Argument by Analogy.- 7. The Descending Argument by Analogy versus the dictum de exemplo.- 8. Ideal Instantiation.- 9. The Tyranny of the First Figure and Reduction of Articles to Quantification by means of Polyadic Predication.- 10. Substitution in Individual Propositions: the Analogical Doctrine of Substitution and the Fallacy of Undistributed Middle.- (i) The Analogical Doctrine of Substitution.- (ii) The vis universalis of Individual Propositions and the Fallacy of Undistributed Middle.- 11. Dissociation of Arguments by Analogy from Syllogistic.- 12. Two Meanings of “Deduction” and “Induction” and the Postulate of Deductivity.- (i) What is meant by “Deduction” and “Induction”?.- (ii) The Postulate of Deductivity.- 13. Arguments by Analogy in the Logics of Lotze and Sigwart.- (i) Lotze.- (ii) Sigwart.- 14. The Fear of the Counter-Example: I. Analogical and Relative Judgments.- (i) Pfänder.- (ii) Bosanquet.- 15. The Fear of the Counter-Example: II. Analogical Terms.- 16. Pure Philosophical Logic: Analogy, Symmetry, and Logical Stability.- 17. A Problem of Modern Logic: the Logical Form of Scientific Laws.- 18. Analogy, Morphology, and Judgments and Arguments ?? ?????????: Descent or Ascent?.- 19. Kant’s Transcendental Deductions.- Notes.- 4. Ascent.- X. Introduction of Indefinite Propositions by Ekthesis.- 1. Particular - Indefinite - Problematic: Indefinite Terms some S.- (i) The Older Tradition.- (ii) The Renaissance.- (iii) The Interregnum.- (iv) Contemporary German idealism.- (v) Neo-Thomism.- 2. Albrecht on Ekthesis of the Middle Concept as a means of Recognizing non-Tautologous Logical Truths.- 3. Aristotle on ???????.- 4. Ekthesis as Existential Instantiation.- 5. Ekthesis as the Introduction of the Conjunction of the Extreme Terms.- (i) Exposition of non-Empty Classes.- (ii) Von Freytag’s Principle of Forgettability (“Vergessbarkeitsprinzip”).- (iii) How Plato’s Principle is Employed.- 6. Defining the Req-ness of s as a no-Risk Ekthetic epagoge: Analogical Knowledge and Ontological Ascent.- (i) Albrecht on the Genesis of Concepts.- (ii) From Analogy to Identity.- 7. Particular Propositions as Expressions of Judgments of Equality.- 8. Conclusion.- 9. Traditional Logical Syntax.- (i) Introductory Remarks.- (ii) Aristotelian Syntax.- (iii) Kantian Syntax: Negation of the Subject and of the Predicate.- (iv). Hamiltonian Syntax: “Quantification of the Predicate”.- (v) SiP-SoP-Syntax.- 10. Rejection of Indefinite Terms some S: Brentano and Frege.- 11. Reaction: Husserl on Existential Propositions.- 12. Interpreting “All” and “Some”: Universe of Discourse or Metaphysical Being?.- 13. Linsky’s Operators: a Dialogieal Desideratum.- Notes.- XI. Conjunction, Potentiality, and Disjunction.- 1. The Problem of the Logic of Disjunctions and the Loss of De Morgan’s Laws.- 2. Conjunctive and aut-Junctive Analysis of General Concepts.- 3. Non-Truth-Functional Connectives: suppositio disjuncta and suppositio copulata.- (i) Suppositio disjunctiva and suppositio disjuncta.- (ii) Suppositio copulativa and suppositio copulata.- 4. Angelelli’s Findings in the Light of the Traditional Interpretation of Ekthesis.- 5. Sides and Aspects: Introduction of Spatial Operators.- 6. Sides, Aspects, and aut-Junctions.- 7. “Can” and “Must” in von Freytag’s Logic.- 8. A Simple Fallacy?.- (i) Quantifiers or Modalities?.- (ii) This Fallacy is a Feature of the Old NP+VP-Logic (Subject-Predicate Logic).- (iii) Purtill on Logical Possibility.- (iv) Lakoff’s Example.- 9. Logical Space and Logical Potential in pre-Kantian Logic: the Logical Field of Force.- 10. Two Introduction-Rules for Potentiality-Operators.- 11. The Logic of Potentialities in Practice.- 12. From Logical Potentiality to Inclusive Disjunction.- 13. A Standpoint Revised: Case Study.- Notes.- XII. Summary and Conclusion.- 1. Four Points of Departure and Five Themes.- 2. Individual and Particular Premisses and Universal Conclu-sions in the Traditional Logic of the Quantifiers.- (i) The Traditional Logic of “All” and “Some”.- (ii) Ekthesis.- (iii) The Potential Genus.- (iv) Ekthesis and Abstraction.- (v) Inclusive Disjunction.- (vi) The Traditional Conception of Ekthesis as Paradigmatic Thinking.- (vii) The “Tyranny of the First Figure” and the Postulate of Deductivity.- (viii) Value Judgments.- 3. Monadic Predication, Internal Relations and the Hierarchy of Articles.- 4. From Analogy to Essential Identity.- 5. From suppositio to Substitution.- (i) Decline of the Theory of suppositio in Traditional Philosophy.- (ii) From a Small Number of suppositiones to the One “Philosophical” suppositio naturalis.- (iii) The “Philosophical” suppositio and Ekthesis.- (iv) The Dialectical Continuum and the Doctrine of Analogical Substitution.- 6. Dialogical Criticism or Logical Stability?.- (i) The Traditional Preference for Symmetrical Notions and Syncategoremata.- (ii) Kant’s Theory of Negation.- (iii) “The Humanist Assault on the Oral Disputation”.- (iv) Restoration of External Secondness in Logic.- Index of Proper Names.- Index of Subjects.