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Preface to the Eighth Edition xv Acknowledgments xix About the Companion Website xx Part I Underpinnings of Social Relations Research 1 Chapter 1 Ways of Thinking and Knowing 3 Recognizing Importance of Research Methods and Relevance of Research 3 Perspective 7 The Place of Values in Social Science Research 8 Contestability in Social and Physical Sciences 11 Casual Observation 13 Naïve Hypotheses and Theories of Social Behavior 15 Sources of Support for Naïve Hypotheses Underlying Casual Observation 18 Logical Analysis 18 Authority 19 Consensus 20 Observation 20 Past Experience 22 Toward a Science of Social Behavior 22 Summary 26 Chapter 2 Doing Social Science Research 29 The Nature of Social Science Theories and Hypotheses 30 What Makes a Theory Productive? 32 The Functions of Research in Constructing Theories 35 Discovery 35 Demonstration 36 Refutation 37 Replication 37 Criteria for Evaluating Social Science Research 38 Construct Validity 38 Internal Validity 39 External Validity 39 Conclusion Validity 40 Maximizing Construct Validity 41 Maximizing Internal Validity 43 Maximizing External Validity 48 Basic and Applied Research 49 Summary 49 Chapter 3 Ethical Principles 53 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study 53 Why Did Ethical Concerns Arise? 55 The Belmont Report 57 Respect for Persons 57 Beneficence 60 Justice 62 Focus on Ethical Issues in Experimental Research: Deception 64 Using Deception in an Ethical Manner 66 Focus on Ethical Issues in Quasi–Experimental Research: Confidentiality and Anonymity 67 Focus on Ethical Issues in Non–Experimental Research: Participant Observation 68 Is Not Doing a Study Ethical? 69 The Ethical Review Process 70 Closing Thoughts 75 Summary 76 Chapter 4 Roles and Relations among Researchers, Practitioners, and Participants in Engaged Research 81 Roles of Researchers in Work with Practitioners, Policy Makers, and Participants in Social Research 84 Action Research Approaches 86 Participatory Action Research 87 Community–Based Participatory Research 87 Importance of Work that Engages Practitioners and Is Relevant to Policy 89 Historical Roots of Engaged Research 90 Importance of Collaborative Engaged Research 92 Prior Social Relations Research Affecting Policy and Practice 93 Applied versus Translational Research 94 Practical Suggestions for Developing Relations with Policy Makers, Practitioners, and Communities 94 Developing Relationships 95 Being Aware of and Acknowledging Other Ongoing Research and Partnership Efforts 96 Organizing Meetings 97 Building Commitment to the Work 98 Dynamics of Power in Relationships with Communities 98 Communication 99 Establishing Timelines for Work and a Work Plan 99 Finding Support for the Research 100 Summary 103 Illustrative Examples 103 Chapter 5 Research in Laboratory Settings 107 When Should the Laboratory Be Used? 109 Universalistic versus Particularistic Research Goals 109 Basic versus Applied Research 110 Examining What Does Happen versus What Would Happen 111 Manipulable versus Nonmanipulable Independent Variables 112 Short versus Long Time Frames 112 Participants??? Awareness of the Research 113 Summary 113 Types of Laboratory Study 114 Impact Studies 114 Judgment Studies 114 Observational Studies 115 Summary 115 Artifact and Artificiality 115 The Laboratory and Types of Validity 116 Internal Validity 116 Construct Validity 116 External Validity 118 ???Artificiality??? of the Laboratory 119 Overcoming Threats to Validity of Laboratory Research 120 Experimenter Expectancy 120 Demand Characteristics 124 Elements of a Laboratory Study 125 Setting 125 Independent Variable 126 Manipulation Checks 130 Dependent Variable 132 Debriefing 134 Summary 136 Chapter 6 Research in Field and Community–Based Settings 139 Levels of Analysis 141 Randomization: Pro and Con 143 Illustrations of Non–Laboratory Research 147 Experimental Research: The Jigsaw Classroom 147 Non–Experimental Research: Engaging and Persisting in Volunteerism 148 Non–Experimental Research: Impacts of Post–Secondary Education on Inmate Recidivism Rates, an Action Research Study 149 Can We Afford Not to Do Applied Research? 151 Illustration: Living Downwind of Nuclear Reactors 151 Conducting Research in Community Settings 154 Cultural Issues 156 Control of Extraneous Factors, Statistical and Otherwise 158 Summary 159 Part II Research Approaches in Social Relations Research 161 Chapter 7 Measurement and Reliability 163 From Abstract Concepts to Concrete Representations 164 Constructs 164 Variables 165 Operational Definitions 165 Operational Definitions Are Necessary but Rarely Sufficient 165 Definitional Operationism 166 Measurement Presupposes a Clearly Defined Construct 167 Developing Questionnaire Items 169 Questions Aimed at Facts 170 Questions Aimed at Beliefs or Attitudes 170 Questions Aimed at Friendship Patterns and Attitudes toward Specific Others 172 Questions Aimed at Behavior 172 Question Content: General Issues 173 Question Structure 175 Expressing All Alternatives 175 Avoiding Unwarranted Assumptions 175 Open–Ended versus Closed–Ended Questions 176 Response Options for Closed–Ended Questions 178 Filters and the Assessment of No Opinion 179 Question Sequence 179 Sequence within a Topic Area 180 Item Wording for Sensitive Questions 181 Creating Multiple–Item Scales 182 Issues Concerning Item Construction in Multiple–Item Scales 183 Levels of Measurement 184 Nominal 184 Ordinal 184 Interval 184 Ratio 185 Types of Multiple–Item Scales 186 Differential Scales 186 Cumulative Scales 187 Summated Scales 189 Semantic Differential Scales 191 Reliability and Sources of Unreliability 192 Test???Retest Reliability 195 Internal Consistency Reliability 195 Inter–Rater Reliability 196 Factors that Affect Reliability 196 Summary 197 Chapter 8 Evaluating the Construct Validity of Measures 201 Using Multiple Methods of Measurement 202 Indirect Methods of Measurement 204 Collateral Reports 204 Observation 205 Physiological Measures 207 Other Indirect Methods 209 Summary 210 Evaluating Construct Validity 211 Face Validity 212 Content Validity 212 Criterion Validity 213 Convergent Validity 214 Discriminant Validity 215 Validity and the Nomological Net 216 The Multitrait???Multimethod Matrix 216 Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses 221 Cultural Issues in Measurement 224 Summary 225 Chapter 9 Sampling Methods 229 Some Basic Definitions and Concepts 231 Nonprobability Sampling 234 Haphazard Samples 234 Quota Samples 234 Purposive Samples 235 Snowball Samples 236 Concluding Thoughts about Nonprobability Sampling 237 Probability Sampling 237 Simple Random Samples 238 Selecting a Random Sample 239 Obtaining and Using Random Numbers 239 Principles Underlying the Use of Probability Sampling 241 Common Errors in Random Sampling 243 Stratified Random Sampling 244 Cluster Sampling 247 Sampling Error 249 Random Digit Dial (RDD) Telephone Sampling 250 Sampling Elements Other Than People 251 Summary 253 Chapter 10 Randomized Experiments 257 Controlling and Manipulating Variables 258 Random Assignment 261 Independent Variables that Vary Within and Between Participants 263 Threats to Internal Validity 264 Selection 265 Maturation 265 History 266 Instrumentation 267 Mortality 267 Selection by Maturation 268 Illustrating Threats to Internal Validity with a Research Example 269 Selection 270 Selection by Maturation 270 Maturation 271 History 271 Instrumentation 271 Mortality 272 Construct Validity of Independent Variables in a Randomized Experiment 272 Alternative Experimental Designs 274 Design 1: Randomized Two–Group Design 274 Design 2: Pretest???Posttest Two–Group Design 275 Design 3: Solomon Four–Group Design 276 Design 4: Between–Participants Factorial Design 277 Repeated Measures Designs 282 Analyzing Data from Experimental Designs 284 Strengths and Weaknesses of Randomized Experiments 284 Experimental Artifacts 285 External Validity 285 The Problem of College Sophomores in the Laboratory 286 The Failure of Experiments to Provide Useful Descriptive Data 287 Summary 288 Chapter 11 Quasi–Experimental and Other Nonrandomized Designs 291 Examples of Nonrandomized Designs 293 Survey Study 293 Quasi–Experimental Intervention Study 295 Conditions for Causality 297 Illustrative Nonrandomized Designs 300 Static–Group Comparison Design 300 Pretest???Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group Design 302 One–Group Pretest???Posttest Design 304 Interrupted Time–Series Design 305 Replicated Interrupted Time–Series Design 309 Single Case/Single Subject Designs 310 Regression Effects: Challenges of Matching in Quasi–Experimentation 312 Regression Discontinuity Analysis 317 Propensity Score Matching 318 Summary 320 Chapter 12 Non–Experimental Research 323 Types of Non–Experimental Research 325 Causal Thinking and Correlational Data 326 Analyzing Non–Experimental Quantitative Data 328 Longitudinal Panel Designs 329 Naturalness in Research 330 Benefits and Costs of Naturalness 332 When Might We Not Need Natural Settings? 333 Observational Research 335 Unobtrusive Measures Involving Physical Traces 335 Systematic Observation 338 Relatively Unstructured Methods: Ethological Approaches 339 Structured Methods: Checklists or Coding Schemes 341 Steps in Conducting an Observation 345 Archival Research 349 Statistical Records 351 Characteristics of Archival Research 354 Research Survey Archives 355 Verbal Records 356 Public and Private Documents 356 Mass Communications/Social Media 356 Issues in Archival Research 359 Summary 360 Chapter 13 Qualitative Research 365 Narrative Analysis 366 Research Example of Narrative Analysis 367 Analyzing and Reporting Narrative Data 368 Focus Groups 371 How Focus Groups Are Structured and Conducted 371 Case Study of the Strategic Use of Focus Groups 375 What Focus Groups Can and Cannot Do 376 Oral History 378 Participant Observation 382 Field Notes 384 Analyzing Field Notes 385 Generalization 386 Ethical Concerns 387 Summary 388 Chapter 14 Survey Research 391 Major Components of Survey Research and Sources of Error 393 Major Survey Research Designs 394 Modes of Data Collection 396 Questionnaires 396 Face–to–Face Interviews 400 Telephone Interviews 402 Asking Sensitive Questions 405 Summary 408 Chapter 15 Evaluation Research 413 Background 414 Defining Program Evaluation 415 Program Evaluation and Accountability 415 Steps in an Evaluation 417 Summative and Formative Evaluations 418 Detailed Description of Stages in Conducting a Program Evaluation 419 Developing a Conceptual Model 420 Developing Evaluation Questions 421 Developing an Evaluation Design 422 Collecting Data 422 Analyzing Data 423 Providing Information to Interested Audiences 423 A Quasi–Experimental Program Evaluation: Compensatory Education 424 The Politics of Applied and Evaluation Research 427 Results with Immediate Impact 427 Vested Interests and Competing Criteria 428 Technical Decisions with Ideological Consequences 429 Clients??? and Other Stakeholders??? Participation in Evaluations 430 Summary 432 Appendix: Criteria for Effective Evaluations 434 Chapter 16 Mixed Methods Approaches: Learning from Complementary Methods 437 Overview 437 When to Use Mixed Methods 438 Triangulation 441 Brief Background of Mixed Methods Approaches 443 Types of Mixed Methods Approaches 443 Framing Perspectives for Mixed Methods 444 Decisions in Selecting the Type of Mixed Methods Design 444 Major Types of Mixed Methods Designs 445 Convergent Parallel Design 445 Explanatory Sequential Design 446 Exploratory Sequential Design 446 Embedded Design 446 Transformative Design 447 Multiphase Design 448 Wrapping Up 448 Summary 449 Part III Analysis and Writing 453 Chapter 17 Critically Reviewing Research Reports and Literatures 455 Reviewing Individual Research Studies 456 Step One: Read the Abstract 457 Step Two: Read the Introduction 457 Step Three: Read the Method Section with a Fine–Tooth Comb 457 A. Participants 457 B. Measures or Apparatus 458 C. Procedures 459 Step Four: Evaluate the Results 460 Step Five: Take the Discussion Section with More than a Grain of Salt 460 Reviewing Bodies of Research on a Single Topic 461 Searching the Literature 461 Other Ways of Locating Articles 463 Reviewing the Literature: ???Traditionally??? and Meta–Analytically 465 Understanding the Concept of Effect Size: The Foundation of Meta–Analysis 468 Coding Studies for a Meta–Analysis 470 Coding Other Features of Studies 473 Basic Meta–Analytic Tests: Combining and Comparing Studies 474 Writing and Reading Meta–Analyses 479 Summary 482 Chapter 18 Writing the Research Report 485 Preface 486 Some Preliminary Considerations 487 Which Report Should You Write? 487 Arguments for Position Number Two 488 Arguments for Position Number One 489 The ???Hourglass??? Shape of the Report 490 Introduction 491 What Is the Problem Being Investigated? 491 The Literature Review 493 Your Study 494 Method 494 What to Include 494 Ethical Issues 497 Results 497 Setting the Stage 497 Presenting the Findings 498 Discussion 501 Summary or Abstract 503 References 503 Appendix 503 Some Suggestions on Procedure and Style 504 Accuracy and Clarity 504 Work from an Outline 504 Write Simply. Use Examples. Use Friends as Reviewers 504 Omit Needless Words 505 Avoid Metacomments on the Writing 506 Use Repetition and Parallel Construction 506 Be Compulsive. Be Willing to Restructure 507 Person and Voice 507 Tense 508 Avoid Language Bias 508 A. Research Participants 508 B. Sex and Gender 508 C. Racial and Ethnic Identity 510 D. Sexual Orientation and Identification 510 E. Disabilities 510 Summary 511 References 513 Index 535