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FOREWORD by Dr Lotay Tshering, Prime Minister, Royal Government of Bhutan PREFACE by H.E. Lyonpo Yeshey Penjore, Honourable Minister for Agriculture and Forest, Royal Government of Bhutan CHAPTER 1:  STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN BHUTAN            Abstract          1 Overview of Bhutan   1 Ecological Zones & Climatic Features           4 Land Use in Bhutan   5 Source: FRMD/DOFPS 10 Conservation  Efforts & Protected Area Systems     10 Conservation Laws and Policies        13 Assessment of Non-Protected Areas            14 Sustainable Forest Management Plans in Non-protected Area      15 Scientific Forest Management           16 Community Forest Empowerment    16 Non-Wood Forest Product (NWFP) Management    17 Plantation and Reforestation Programs       18 Keystone species and Conservation Areas   18 Foot Notes      18 Annexure 1.1 Classification and Characteristics of Vegetation Zones in Bhutan (Grierson & Long, 1983, see 19) 22 Annexure 1.2 Description of Classification of Land Cover Class and Sub-Class in Bhutan (See 20)           25 CHAPTER 2:  DRIVERS AND PRESSURE ON THE STATE OF ENVIRONMENT IN BHUTAN    Abstract          27 Land Use         31 Hydropower projects 32 Farm Roads    33 Mining and Mineral Development:   36 Land use for Agriculture        38 Waste Management  42 Figure 2.6 Waste Generated (tons/day) Dzongkhag wise    44 Fuel wood consumption        45 Fig. 2.7 Fuel Wood Supply in Bhutan            46 Timber Production     47 Forest Fires     51 Livestock Grazing       52 Air Pollution and Fossil Fuels:           54 Fig.  2.10 Fossil Fuel Consumption in Bhutan Source: Environment Accounting, 2018)    54 Demographic and Poverty factors:    61 Invasive Alien Plant Species  64 Climate change          66 Foot Notes (1- 157)    72 Annexure 2.1 List of Invasive Species in Bhutan      83 CHAPTER 3:  NON-VIOLENT TECHNIQUES FOR HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT RESOLUTION Abstract          88 Contextual Framework within the ACPB:     88 Methodology: 90 Global context of HWC          90 Conflict Management Strategies:      94 Retaliatory Actions and Violent Approaches           94 Lethal Control – Counterproductive 96 From Conflict to Co-existence           98 Safe and Non-Violent Approach       99 Table 3.1 Important Elements of HWC (WWF-Bhutan, 2016; See Foot Note 78)  99 Human Wildlife Conflict Policy         100 Implementing Agencies for HWC      102 Immune-contraception for population control       109 Translocation of Problem Animals   111 Alternative Livelihoods          113 Land-Use Planning and Landscape Management    113 Mitigation Measures 114 Compensation            115 Performance payments         117 Ecotourism and Revenue Sharing     119 Community Education           120 Understanding the Conflict Profile   121 Reporting        122 Information compilation, management and use:    123 Response - measures taken to alleviate a specific or ongoing HWC incident       123 Monitoring and Evaluation - measuring the performance of HWC management 124 Human Wildlife Conflict Situation in Bhutan          124 Underlying Forces of Human Wild-life Conflicts in Bhutan 124 Human Wildlife Conflict Situation in Bhutan          125 Preventive Measures 128 Mitigation Approach in Bhutan        131 Strategic Outcomes    132 Table 3.5 Strategic Intents contributing to the Safe System (WWF-Bhutan, 2016; See Foot Note 246).       132 Effective Monitoring and Evaluation            133 Conclusion and Recommendation    134 Non-violent and Safe Approach        134 Institutional Arrangement    135 Human Wildlife Conflict Policy & Legislation           136 Coping Techniques and Mechanisms           137 Hotspot Mapping       139 Physiological Sterilization of wildlife.           139 Table 3.6 Immunocontraceptive vaccines used in different animals:        141 Innovative Research Fund for farmers         142 Economic Responses to HWC           142 Alternative livelihoods          143 Regional Transboundary Conservation        143 Foot Notes      144 Annexure 3.1 Indicators of the Strategic Outcomes of People, Wildlife, Assets and Habitat            164 CHAPTER 4:  ANIMAL RIGHTS AND PROTECTION Abstract          167 Buddhist Perspectives & Conservation Biology       174 Bhutanese Buddhism and the Segue To Contemporary Animal Protection Policies            177 National Law & Buddhist Ethics        179 State Monastic Body  181 Non-governmental Organizations (NGO)     182 Tshethar (Life Saving) Practices         183 Animal Health and Rescue Centers  185 Farming Systems and Livestock Population 186 Meat Consumption in Bhutan          188 Discussion and Recommendations on Animal Protection and Animal Rights       199 Animal Protection Policy of Bhutan  199 Population control of Livestock Animals      200 Institutionalization and Implementation Arrangement      200 Monitoring & Implementation         201 Dog Population Control         202 GNH Index for Animal Kingdom        205 References (1-125)     206 Annexure 4.1 God’s Country: The New Zealand Factor, by Michael Charles Tobias and Jane Gray Morrison, Dancing Star Foundation, 2010.         215 CHAPTER 5:  GAP ANALYSIS OF THREATENED, RARE AND UNDER-REPRESENTED SPECIES IN BHUTAN Abstract          222 Introduction   222 Impacts of Extinction of Species       226 Taxonomic Classification – Seven Kingdoms Model            227 Objectives       227 Methodology  227 Assessment of Under-Represented Species in Kingdoms    228 Under-Represented Species in Classification of Groups     231 Records of Species Groups under Animalia Kingdom          233 Vertebrates    233 Invertebrates  235 Species Groups under Plantae Kingdom      236 Tracheophytes           237 Chromista Kingdom   238 Fungi Kingdom           239 Protista Kingdom       241 Eubacteria Kingdom   242 Archaebacteria Kingdom       243 Assessment of Threatened Species  243 Conservation Status of Fish in Bhutan         246 Threatened Endemic Plants in Bhutan         247 Under-Representation of Medicinal Plants  276 Documentation of Agro-Biodiversity            277 Community Participation and Citizen Science         277 Discussion and Recommendations   278 Foot Notes      280 Annexure 5.1 List of Threatened Species of Plants (IUCN Status-2019)     284 Annexure 5.2 List of Threatened Species of Mammals in Bhutan (IUCN Status-2019)            285 Annexure 5.3 List of Threatened Species of Birds in Bhutan (IUCN) – 2019 NBC  287 Annexure 5.4 List of Threatened Fish Species          289 Annexure 5.5: List of Threatened Amphibian and Reptile Species 290 Annexure 5.6 Monotypic Species of Seed Plants under each Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species (Source Flora of Bhutan, Volume 1, 2 & 3)      290 CHAPTER 6:  CONSERVATION STRATEGY OF THREATENED AND UNDER-REPRESENTED MAMMALIAN SPECIES Introduction.  293 Landscape Conservation Approach  293 Mammalian species   294 Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) Conservation        294 Recommendations for Conservation Strategies      295 Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius) Conservation     296 Recommendation for Conservation Strategy of Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius)          297 Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus Chrysogaster) and Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster) Conservation    297 Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Musk Deer          299 Dhole (Cuon alpinus) Conservation Strategy           299 Recommendations for Dhole Conservation Strategy          300 Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei) Conservation Strategy         301 Recommendation for Conservation Strategy of Golden Langur     301 Conservation of Arunachal Macaque (Macaca munzala)    302 Conservation of Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus)            303 Conservation of Hog Deer (Axis Porcinus)    303 Wild Water Buffalo (Bubalus arnee) Conservation 305 Discussion on Conservation of Bats 306 Foot Notes (1-131)     309 CHAPTER 7:  CONSERVATION OF THREATENED AND UNDER-REPRESENTED SPECIES OF PLANTS Introduction   322 Endemic Plant Species           323 Monotypic Plant Species       323 Discussion on Threatened Orchids   323 Critically Endangered flowering plants         325 Endangered Flowering Plants:           325 Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Plant Species      326 Conservation of Bryophytes  328 Ecological significance of Bryophytes           329 Economic Uses of Bryophytes           329 Medicinal Use of Bryophytes            329 Bryophytes as Pollution indicators   329 Bryophytes in Science and Education           330 Threats to Bryophytes           330 Lesser Known Timber Species in Bhutan      331 Foot Notes      332 Annexure 7.1   Most commonly used timber species (Source: FRMD/DoFPS)       337 Annexure 7.2  High value timber with less utilization (Source: FRMD/DoFPS)      338 CHAPTER 8:  CONSERVATION OF THREATENED BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES AND PARASITES Birds Conservation    339 Conservation of White Bellied Heron (Ardea insignis)        340 Conservation of Vultures      341 Discussion on Conservation of White Winged Duck            342 Conservation Strategy of Baer’s Pochard     342 Conservation Strategy of Eagles       343 Recommendations for Conservation Strategy of Threatened Birds           343 Conservation of Turtles         344 Importance of Turtle Conservation  345 Conservation Strategies        346 Conservation of Threatened Fish Species    346 CHAPTER 9:  CONSERVATION FOR FOOD SECURITY AND UNDER-REPRESENTED MICROBES Abstract          362 Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources     362 Agro-Biodiversity Gene Banks           363 Preservation under Permafrost Conditions 363 Microbial Conservation Strategies    364 FOOT NOTES