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List of illustrationsList of texts Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1: The origins of English (before 450) Chapter overview 1.1. The origins of human language 1.2. Language change 1.3. Changes in Germanic before the invasions of Britain 1.4. The world of the Germanic peoples 1.5. The Germanic migrations 1.6. Summary. Study questions. Further reading Chapter 2: Old English: early Germanic Britain (450–700) Chapter overview 2.1. The first peoples 2.2. The Germanic incursions 2.3. Introduction to Old English 2.4. The Christianization of England 2.5. Literature in the early Old English period 2.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 3: Old English: the Viking invasions and their consequences (700–1066/1100) Chapter overview 3.1. The Viking invasions 3.2. Linguistic influence of Old Norse 3.3. Creolization 3.4. Alfred’s reforms and the West Saxon standard 3.5. Monastic reform, linguistic developments, and literary genres 3.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 4: Middle English: The non-standard period (1066/1100–1350) Chapter overview 4.1. Dynastic conflict and the Norman Conquest 4.2. Linguistic features of Middle English in the non-standard period 4.3. French influence on Middle English and the question of creolization 4.4. English literature 4.5. Dialectal diversity in ME 4.6. Summary. Study questions Further reading Chapter 5: Middle English: the emergence of Standard English (1350–1500) Chapter overview 5.1. Political and social turmoil and demographic developments 5.2. The expansion of domains 5.3. Chancery English (Chancery Standard) 5.4. Literature 5.5. Variation 5.6 Summary Study questions Further reading  Chapter 6: The Early Modern English Period (1500–1700) Chapter overview 6.1. The Early Modern English Period 6.2. Early Modern English 6.3. Regulation and codification 6.4. Religious and scientific prose and belles lettres 6.5. Variation: South and North 6.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 7: The spread of English (since the late sixteenth century) Chapter overview 7.1. Social-historical background 7.2. Language policy 7.3. The emergence of General English (GenE) 7.4. Transplantation 7.5. Linguistic correlates of European expansionism 7.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 8: English in Great Britain and Ireland (since 1700) Chapter overview 8.1. Social and historical developments in Britain and Ireland 8.2. England and Wales 8.3. Scotland 8.4. Ireland 8.5. Urban varieties 8.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 9: English pidgins, English creoles, and English (since the early seventeenth century) Chapter overview 9.1. European expansion and the slave trade 9.2. Language contact 9.3. Pidgins 9.4. Creoles 9.5. Theories of origins 9.6 Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 10: English in North America (since the early seventeenth century) Chapter overview 10.1. The beginnings of English in North America 10.2. Colonial English 10.3 Development of North American English after American independence  10.4. Ethnic variety within AmE 10.5. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 11: English in the ENL communities of the Southern Hemisphere (since 1788) Chapter overview 11.1. Social-historical background 11.2. Southern Hemisphere English: grammar 11.3. Southern Hemisphere English: pronunciation 11.4. Southern Hemisphere English: vocabulary and pragmatics 11.5. Regional and ethnic variation 11.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 12: English in the ESL countries of Africa and Asia (since 1795) Chapter overview 12.1. English A Second Language 12.2. Language planning and policy 12.3. Linguistic features of ESL 12.4. Substrate influence 12.5. Identitarian function of language 12.6. Summary Study questions Further reading Chapter 13: Global English (since 1945)  Chapter overview 13.1. The beginnings of Global English 13.2. Media dominance 13.3. Features of medialized language 13.4. ENL, ESL, and ELF/EFL 13.5. The identitarian role of the multiplicity of Englishes 13.6. Summary Study questions Further reading The International Phonetic Alphabet Glossary Bibliography Index