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NEURONS, NEUROTRANSMISSION AND COMMUNICATION HOW THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS ORGANISED Cells of the Nervous System The Neuron Neuron Structure Inside the Neuron Neuron Classification Neuroglia Cells Types of Glia cells Astrocytes (CNS) Oligodendrocytes (CNS) Schwann Cells (PNS) Microglia Radial Glia cells Glia Cells and Injury Gliosis INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The Resting Membrane Potential The Action Potential and Nerve Impulse Summation Effects Synaptic Transmission The Synaptic Vesicle Modulation of Synaptic Transmission Non-Synaptic chemical communication Post Synaptic Receptors and Receptors Types NEUROTRANSMITTERS Major Types of Neurotransmitters The Amino Acids GABA Glycine Glutamate (Glutamic Acid) Aspartate Monoamines Serotonin Melatonin Noradrenaline Dopamine Acetylcholine Neuropeptides and Neuromodulators Soluble Gases Summary NEUROANATOMY AND BRAIN MAPPING Brodmann Areas Planes of section THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM BASIC BRAIN STRUCTURE The Hindbrain The Midbrain The Forebrain The Diencephalon The Telencephalon Cerebral Cortex or Neocortex Occipital Lobe Parietal Lobe Temporal Lobe Frontal Lobe Ventricular System Spinal cord THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Spinal Nerves Cranial Nerves The Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System BRAIN MAPPING TECHNIQUES Lesion Techniques Recording and Imaging Techniques Electrical Recording Electroencephalography EEG Magnetoencephalogram (MEG). Structural Imaging Techniques Computerised Tomography (CT) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Basic MRI scans T1-weighted MRI: Spin-lattice relaxation time T2-weighted MRI: Spin-spin relaxation time Functional Imaging Techniques Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Functional Magnetic Imaging (fMRI) Benefits of Using fMRI The Downside of Using fMRI Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Neurochemical Techniques Cerebral Dialysis 2-Deoxyglucose Method In Vivo Voltammetry Behavioural Genetic Techniques Twin and Adoption Studies Neuropsychological Techniques Summary GENES AND EVOLUTION Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) DNA Replication Cell Division Mitosis Meiosis Protein Synthesis Pre-initiation Complex and Promoters RNA Synthesis Initiation Elongation Termination Transcription Regulation Translation Genetic mutations Sex Cells Turner's Syndrome Klinefelter's Syndrome Influence of the environment on gene expression. Environmental influence - Dizygotic (Fraternal) twins Environmental Influence - Monozygotic (Identical) Twins Environmental Influence - What we can infer from twin studies THE EVOLUTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Diffuse nervous systems Centralised nervous systems - cephalised systems Centralised nervous systems - compartmentalised systems Centralised nervous systems - Complex compartmentalised nervous systems The vertebrate system The vertebrate system - The primitive state The vertebrate system - Encephalisatio The vertebrate system - Dominance of the cerebrum Summary DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF THE BRAIN THE EMERGENCE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Induction The Developing Brain Spinal Cord Development Proliferation Migration Aggregation Differentiation and Axon Growth Chemoaffinity theory Blueprint hypothesis The topographic gradient hypothesis Synaptogenesis Selective cell death Functional validation DEVELOPMENTAL ABNORMALITIES Spina bifida Anencephaly Microcephaly. Macrocephaly Down Syndrome Phenylketonuria (PKU) Fragile X syndrome Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) NEURAL PLASTICITY Effects of Visual Deprivation on Ocular Dominance The critical period Neuronal Regeneration Contralateral Sprouting Denervation Supersensitivity Reorganization of Sensory Representations Regenerating the Nervous System Cell Transplantations. Summary VISUAL SYSTEM The Eye The Retina Photoreceptors: the rods and cones Transduction of Visual Information Major types of Ganglion Cells Type P retinal ganglion cells are object detectors that have colour sensitivity. Type M retinal ganglion cells detect motion and are not sensitive to colour. Behaviour of Retinal Ganglion Cells Horizontal Cells Amacrine Cells Pathways of the Eye and Brain Analysis of information The Visual Cortex Dorsal and Ventral Streams Recognition of objects: Lateral inhibition Receptive Fields Secondary Visual Cortex Visual Area V2 Visual Area V3 Visual Area V4 Visual Area V5 The Perception of Colour, Motion, and Depth: Colour Vision The Young-Hemholtz Trichromatic Theory Hering's Opponent-process Theory Retinex Theory Motion Perception The Binding Problem Disorders of Object Perception: Visual Agnosia Apperceptive Agnosia Associative Agnosia Blindsight Hemispatial Neglect Summary NON VISUAL SENSORY SYSTEMS Sensory Processing The Somatosenses Skin Receptors Spinal Cord Dermatone Somatosensory Pathways General somatosensory pathway - Conscious sensation Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal system Anterolateral system Common features of Conscious Somatosensory Pathways Unconscious sensation Spinocerebellar tract Gate Theory of Pain. Somatosensory Cortex AUDITORY SYSTEM The Ear Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear Transduction of sound wave to nerve signal: Inner hair cells Outer hair cells The neural connections and the pathway to auditory cortex: Primary Auditory cortex Detection of Frequency Perception of Amplitude Music Perception Hearing loss - Deafness Conduction Deafness Sensorineural Deafness Central Deafness Balance - The Vestibular System CHEMICAL SENSES Taste Taste Bud Morphology and Types of Cells Mechanisms of Taste Perception Taste Pathways Olfaction The Olfactory Pathway Summary MOTOR CONTROL AND MOVEMENT The Mechanics of Movement Control Striated or Skeletal Muscle Smooth Muscle and Cardiac Muscle Structure of Striated or Skeletal Muscle Tendon Organs Muscle Spindles Spinal Reflexes. Monosynaptic Stretch Reflexes Polysynaptic Reflex Renshaw Cells Gamma Motor System Movement Controlled by the Cortex Motor Cortex -Primary (M1) Motor Cortex - Secondary Posterior Parietal Cortex Motor Pathways Pathways originating in cortex The Corticospinal Tracts Corticobulbar Tract Pathways originating in Subcortex Rubrospinal Tract The Ventral Medial Group The Vestibulospinal Tracts. The Reticulospinal Tracts The Tectospinal Tract Cerebellum The Structure of the Cerebellum Inputs and outputs to the cerebellum The Cerebellum Circuits Basal Ganglia Summary THE BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION Motives EATING The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Paraventricular and Arcuate nuclei Glucostatic Principle Ghrelin. Environmental Factors of Eating Hunger and Eating Based on Learning Obesity and Long Term Control of Body Weight The Lipostatic Theory Set Point Theory Genetics and Overweight Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa DRINKING Dry Mouth Theory Osmostic Thirst Hypovolemic Thirst Reproductive Behaviour Development of the Reproductive Organs Sex Differences in the Brain Role of SDN in the management of male sexual behaviours Summary SLEEP AND BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS Biological Rhythms The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) Influence of light-dark cycle How much sleep do people require? Measuring Sleep. Sleep Stages REM sleep. Ponto-geniculo-occipital waves or PGO waves Sequences of NREM and REM sleep Neural Mechanisms of Sleep Passive Sleep Theory Active Reticular Activation System Theory Reticular Activating System Reticular formation Hypothalamus Basal Forebrain Raphe Nucleus Theories Regarding Reasons for Sleep Evolutionary Theory of Sleep Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep Information Consolidation Theory of Sleep Sleep Disorders Insomnia Sleep related breathing disorders Sleep Apnea Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) Central Sleep Apnea (CSA) Hypersomnia- Narcolepsy Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders Parasomnias Arousal disorders (e.g. Night Terrors, Sleep Walking and Sleep Talking) REM Behaviour Disorder Restless Leg Syndrome Other Parsomnias Summary BIOPSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONS, STRESS, AND HEALTH Biopsychology of Emotions Darwin's Theory James Lange Theory Canon-Bard Theory Schachter-Singer Theory Sham Rage Anatomy of Emotions: The Limbic System Limbic system and the Papez circuit Hippocampus Amygdala Thalamus Hypothalamus Cingulate gyrus Ventral Tegmental Area Septum Prefrontal area Insula Cerebral hemispheres and Emotion Emotions and Facial Expressions Primary and Secondary Facial Emotions Facial Feedback Hypothesis Duchenne Smile Fear, Attack and Escape Behaviours Attack Behaviours Heredity and Aggression Neurotransmitters and hormones Testosterone Glucocorticoids Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) Serotonin Stress and Health Theories Relating to Stress Alarm Stage Resistance Stage Exhaustion Phase How the Body Reacts to Stress Acute stress: The Sympathomedullary Pathway Chronic Stress: The Pituitary-adrenal System The Immune System B-Cells T Cells Phagocytes Cytokines Psychoneuroimmunology (PIN) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Summary MEMORY, LEARNING, AND AMNESIA Processing of Information Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Working Memory Neural substrate of Working Memory Long Term Memory. Classic Conditioning Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Hebbian Theory Learning in Aplysia Brain Areas Involved in Memory The Hippocampus Second Messengers Systems and Memory The Cellular Basis of Memory: Long Term Potentiation Other Brain Structures Associate with Memory Cerebellum and Long Term Depression Amygdala Motor Memory and the Basal Ganglia Temporal lobe Parietal Lobe Occipital lobe Disorders of Memory Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia Psychogenic or Functional amnesia Case Study 1: Clive Wearing Case Study 2: Henry Gustav Molaison Summary LATERALISATION AND LANGUAGE Lateralisation of Brain Function Split-Brain Patients Language Involvement of the Right Hemisphere in Language Is Language Innate or Do We Learn It? Speech Production Broca Aphasia Speech Comprehension Wernicke's Aphasia The Wernicke-Geschwind model The Bilingual Brain Other Disorders of Speech Production Fluent Aphasias Conduction Aphasia Transcortical Sensory Aphasia Non Fluent Aphasias Transcortical Motor Aphasia Global Aphasia Apraxia of Speech Auditory Verbal Agnosia Reading Writing Disorders of Reading and Writing Alexia and Agraphia Dysgraphia Dyslexia Phonological Theory Visual Magnocellular Theory Cerebellar Theory Unified Theory Summary BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR DISORDERS. Affective Disorders Diagnosis Axis I: Clinical Syndromes Axis II: Developmental Disorders and Personality Disorders Axis III: General Medical Conditions Axis IV: Severity of Psychosocial Stressors Axis V: Global Assessment of Highest Level of Functioning Affective Disorders Depression Major Depression Dysthymia Bipolar Disorders Cyclothymia Causes of Depression Genetics Neurochemistry and Depression Neuroanatomy of Depression The role of HPA system in depression Treatment of Depression SCHIZOPHRENIA The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia The NMDA and Glutamate Hypothesis of Schizophrenia Brain Damage and Schizophrenia NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS The Neurological Examination DEMENTIA: ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE Classification of Alzheimer's Disease Assessment of Azheimer's Disease Neurotransmitters and the ACH Hypothesis APP and Amyloid Beta Hypothesis Tau Hypothesis Presenilins Apolipoprotein E Hypothesis MOVEMENT DISORDER: PARKINSON'S DISEASE Signs and Symptoms Assessment of Parkinson's Disease Assessment scales Causes of Parkinson's Disease Neural Structures Involved in PD Motor circuit in Parkinson disease Management of Parkinson's Disease Summary