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Preface XI Volume 1 1 Fundamental Concepts 1 1.1 The Atom 2 1.2 Atomic Processes 2 1.3 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 4 1.4 Nuclear Decay Types 6 1.5 Some Physical Concepts Needed in Nuclear Chemistry 11 1.5.1 Fundamental Forces 11 1.5.2 Elements from Classical Mechanics 12 1.5.3 Relativistic Mechanics 12 1.5.4 The de Broglie Wavelength 14 1.5.5 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 15 1.5.6 The Standard Model of Particle Physics 16 1.5.7 Force Carriers 19 Reference 20 Further Reading 20 2 Radioactivity in Nature 23 2.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 23 2.2 Radioactive Substances in Nature 26 References 30 Further Reading 30 3 Radioelements and Radioisotopes and Their Atomic Masses 33 3.1 Periodic Table of the Elements 33 3.2 Isotopes and the Chart of Nuclides 34 3.3 Nuclide Masses and Binding Energies 39 3.4 Evidence for Shell Structure in Nuclei 47 3.5 Precision Mass Spectrometry 49 References 55 Further Reading 55 4 Other Physical Properties of Nuclei 57 4.1 Nuclear Radii 57 4.2 Nuclear Angular Momenta 63 4.3 Magnetic Dipole Moments 65 4.4 Electric Quadrupole Moments 67 4.5 Statistics and Parity 69 4.6 Excited States 70 References 71 Further Reading 71 5 The Nuclear Force and Nuclear Structure 73 5.1 Nuclear Forces 73 5.2 Charge Independence and Isospin 76 5.3 Nuclear Matter 81 5.4 Fermi Gas Model 82 5.5 Shell Model 84 5.6 Collective Motion in Nuclei 94 5.7 Nilsson Model 101 5.8 The Pairing Force and Quasi–Particles 104 5.9 Macroscopic???Microscopic Model 106 5.10 Interacting Boson Approximation 108 5.11 Further Collective Excitations: Coulomb Excitation, High–Spin States, Giant Resonances 110 References 117 Further Reading 117 6 Decay Modes 119 6.1 Nuclear Instability and Nuclear Spectroscopy 119 6.2 Alpha Decay 119 6.2.1 Hindrance Factors 125 6.2.2 Alpha–Decay Energies 126 6.3 Cluster Radioactivity 126 6.4 Proton Radioactivity 129 6.5 Spontaneous Fission 132 6.6 Beta Decay 148 6.6.1 Fundamental Processes 148 6.6.2 Electron Capture–to–Positron Ratios 158 6.6.3 Nuclear Matrix Elements 160 6.6.4 Parity Non–conservation 162 6.6.5 Massive Vector Bosons 164 6.6.6 Cabibbo???Kobayashi???Maskawa Matrix 165 6.7 Electromagnetic Transitions 170 6.7.1 Multipole Order and Selection Rules 172 6.7.2 Transition Probabilities 174 6.7.3 Internal Conversion Coefficients 179 6.7.4 Angular Correlations 183 References 186 Further Reading 187 7 Radioactive Decay Kinetics 189 7.1 Law and Energy of Radioactive Decay 189 7.2 Radioactive Equilibria 191 7.3 Secular Radioactive Equilibrium 193 7.4 Transient Radioactive Equilibrium 196 7.5 Half–life of Mother Nuclide Shorter than Half–life of Daughter Nuclide 197 7.6 Similar Half–lives 198 7.7 Branching Decay 199 7.8 Successive Transformations 200 Reference 202 Further Reading 203 8 Nuclear Radiation 205 8.1 General Properties 205 8.2 Heavy Charged Particles (A ??? 1) 207 8.3 Beta Radiation 214 8.4 Gamma Radiation 220 8.5 Neutrons 227 8.6 Short–lived Elementary Particles in Atoms and Molecules 232 References 233 Further Reading 234 9 Measurement of Nuclear Radiation 235 9.1 Activity and Counting Rate 235 9.2 Gas–Filled Detectors 239 9.2.1 Ionization Chambers 243 9.2.2 Proportional Counters 244 9.2.3 Geiger???Müller Counters 246 9.3 Scintillation Detectors 248 9.4 Semiconductor Detectors 250 9.5 Choice of Detectors 256 9.6 Spectrometry 259 9.7 Determination of Absolute Disintegration Rates 262 9.8 Use of Coincidence and Anticoincidence Circuits 263 9.9 Low–Level Counting 263 9.10 Neutron Detection and Measurement 264 9.11 Track Detectors 266 9.11.1 Photographic Emulsions and Autoradiography 266 9.11.2 Dielectric Track Detectors 267 9.11.3 Cloud Chambers 268 9.11.4 Bubble Chambers 268 9.11.5 Spark Chambers 269 9.12 Detectors Used in Health Physics 269 9.12.1 Portable Counters and Survey Meters 269 9.12.2 Film Badges 270 9.12.3 Pocket Ion Chambers 270 9.12.4 Thermoluminescence Dosimeters 270 9.12.5 Contamination Monitors 270 9.12.6 Whole–Body Counters 271 Reference 271 Further Reading 271 10 Statistical Considerations in Radioactivity Measurements 273 10.1 Distribution of Random Variables 273 10.2 Probability and Probability Distributions 275 10.3 Maximum Likelihood 282 10.4 Experimental Applications 283 10.5 Statistics of Pulse–Height Distributions 285 10.6 Setting Upper Limits When No Counts Are Observed 287 Further Reading 288 11 Techniques in Nuclear Chemistry 289 11.1 Special Aspects of the Chemistry of Radionuclides 289 11.1.1 Short–Lived Radionuclides and the Role of Carriers 289 11.1.2 Radionuclides of High Specifi c Activity 291 11.1.3 Microamounts of Radioactive Substances 292 11.1.4 Radiocolloids 297 11.1.5 Tracer Techniques 299 11.2 Target Preparation 300 11.3 Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes 306 11.4 Neutron Spectrum in Nuclear Reactors 308 11.4.1 Thermal Neutrons 308 11.4.2 Epithermal Neutrons and Resonances 310 11.4.3 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors 311 11.5 Production of Radionuclides 311 11.5.1 Production in Nuclear Reactors 311 11.5.2 Production by Accelerators 318 11.5.3 Separation Techniques 324 11.5.4 Radionuclide Generators 329 11.6 Use of Recoil Momenta 331 11.7 Preparation of Samples for Activity Measurements 336 11.8 Determination of Half–Lives 337 11.9 Decay–Scheme Studies 339 11.10 In–Beam Nuclear Reaction Studies 342 References 355 Further Reading 357 Volume 2 12 Nuclear Reactions 361 13 Chemical Effects of Nuclear Transmutations 465 14 Influence of Chemical Bonding on Nuclear Properties 487 15 Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Fuel, and Fuel Cycles 507 16 Sources of Nuclear Bombarding Particles 559 17 Radioelements 581 18 Radionuclides in Geo– and Cosmochemistry 677 19 Dating by Nuclear Methods 711 20 Radioanalysis 729 21 Radiotracers in Chemistry 765 22 Radionuclides in the Life Sciences 783 23 Technical and Industrial Applications of Radionuclides and Nuclear Radiation 801 24 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere 813 25 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 861 Appendix 883 Index 891