内容

目次

Preface xv An Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing xvii 1 Environmental Impact – Reality and Myth and Nero Did Not Fiddle While Rome Burned 1 1.1 The Tower of Babel and How it Could be the Cause of Much of the Fracking Debate 2 2 Production Development 5 3 Fractures: Their Orientation and Length 11 3.1 Fracture Orientation 11 3.2 Fracture Length/ Height 13 4 Casing and Cementing 15 4.1 Blowouts 16 4.2 Surface Blowouts 17 4.3 Subsurface Blowouts 17 4.4 Horizontal Drilling 18 4.5 Fracturing and the Groundwater Debate 18 5 Pre–Drill Assessments 19 5.1 Basis of Design 21 6 Well Construction 23 6.1 Drilling 23 6.2 Completion 26 7 Well Operations 29 7.1 Well Plug and Abandonment “P&A” 30 7.2 Considerations 30 8 Failure and Contamination Reduction 43 8.1 Conduct Environmental Sampling Before and During Operations 43 8.2 Disclose the Chemicals Being Used in Fracking Operations 44 8.3 Ensure that Wellbore Casings are Properly Designed and Constructed 44 8.4 Eliminate Venting and Work Toward Green Completions 44 8.5 Prevent Flowback Spillage/Leaks 45 8.6 Dispose/Recycle Flowback Properly 45 8.7 Minimize Noise and Dust 45 8.8 Protect Workers and Drivers 46 8.9 Communicate and Engage 46 8.10 Record and Document 47 9 Frack Fluids and Composition 49 9.1 Uses and Needs for Frack Fluids 50 9.2 Common Fracturing Additives 50 9.3 Typical Percentages of Commonly Used Additives 53 9.4 Proppants 53 9.5 Silica Sand 55 9.6 Resin Coated Proppant 57 9.7 Manufactured Ceramics Proppants 58 9.8 Additional Types 58 9.9 Slickwater 59 10 So Where Do the Frack Fluids Go? 61 11 Common Objections to Drilling Operations 63 11.1 Noise 64 11.2 Changes in Landscape and Beauty of Surroundings 65 11.3 Increased Traffic 66 11.4 Subsurface Contamination of Ground Water 67 11.5 Impacts on Water Wells 67 11.6 Water Analysis 67 11.7 Types of Methane and What They Show Us 70 11.8 Biogenic 71 11.9 Thermogenic 71 11.10 Possible Causes of Methane in Water Wells 71 11.11 Surface Water and Soil Impacts 72 11.12 Spill Preparation and Documentation 72 11.13 Other Surface Impacts 73 11.14 Land Use Permitting 73 11.15 Water Usage and Management 74 11.16 Flowback Water 74 11.17 Produced Water 75 11.18 Flowback and Produced Water Management 76 11.19 Geological Shifts 76 11.20 Induced Seismic Event 77 11.21 Wastewater Disposal Wells 78 11.22 Site Remediation 78 11.23 Regulatory Oversight 78 11.24 Federal Level Oversight 79 11.25 State Level Oversight 79 11.26 Municipal Level Oversight 80 11.27 Examples of Legislation and Regulations 80 11.28 Frack Fluid Makeup Reporting 81 11.29 FracFocus 82 11.30 Atmospheric Emissions 83 12 Air Emissions Controls 85 12.1 Common Sources of Air Emissions 87 12.2 Fugitive Air Emissions 88 12.3 Silica Dust Exposure 89 12.4 Stationary Sources 89 12.5 The Clean Air Act 90 12.6 Regulated Pollutants 90 12.7 NAAQS Criteria Pollutants 91 12.8 Attainment Versus Non–attainment 91 12.9 Types of Federal Regulations 92 12.10 MACT/NESHAP HAPs 92 12.11 NSPS Regulations: 40 CFR Part 60 92 12.12 NSPS Subpart OOOO 93 12.13 Facilities/Activities Affected by NSPS OOOO 93 12.14 Other Types of Federal NSPS and NESHAP/MACT Regulations 95 12.15 NSPS Subpart IIII 95 12.16 NSPS Subpart JJJJ 95 12.17 NSPS Subpart KKK 95 12.18 MACT Subpart HH and Subpart HHH 95 12.19 MACT Subpart ZZZZ 96 12.20 Construction and Operating New Source Review Permits 96 12.21 Title V Permits 96 13 Chemicals and Products on Locations 99 13.1 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 102 13.2 Contents of an MSDS 103 13.3 Product Identification 104 13.4 Hazardous Ingredients of Mixtures 104 13.5 Physical Data 105 13.6 Fire and Explosion Hazard Data 106 13.7 Health Hazard Data 106 13.8 Emergency and First Aid Procedures 107 13.9 Reactivity Data 107 13.10 Spill, Leak, and Disposal Procedures 107 13.11 Personal Protection Information 108 13.12 HCS 2012 Safety Data Sheets (SDS) 117 14 Public Perception, the Media, and the Facts 123 14.1 Regulation or Policy Topics: Media Coverage and Public Perception 128 15 Notes from the Field 137 15.1 Going Forward 150 16 Migration of Hydrocarbon Gases 153 16.1 Introduction 153 16.2 Geochemical Exploration for Petroleum 154 16.3 Primary and Secondary Migration of Hydrocarbons 157 16.3.1 Primary Gas Migration 157 16.3.2 Secondary Gas Migration 159 16.3.3 Gas Entrapment 159 16.4 Origin of Migrating Hydrocarbon Gases 161 16.4.1 Biogenic vs. Thermogenic Gas 161 16.4.1.1 Sources of Migrating Gases 161 16.4.1.2 Biogenic Methane 162 16.4.1.3 Thermogenic Methane Gas 165 16.4.2 Isotopic Values of Gases 167 16.4.3 Nonhydrocarbon Gases 168 16.4.4 Mixing of Gases 170 16.4.5 Surface Gas Sampling 172 16.4.6 Summary 172 16.5 Driving Force of Gas Movement 174 16.5.1 Density of a Hydrocarbon Gas under Pressure 174 16.5.2 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 176 16.5.3 Other Methods of Computing Natural Gas Compressibility 177 16.5.4 Density of Water 181 16.5.5 Petrophysical Parameters Affecting Gas Migration 183 16.5.6 Porosity, Void Ratio, and Density 184 16.5.7 Permeability 188 16.5.8 Free and Dissolved Gas in Fluid 189 16.5.9 Quantity of Dissolved Gas in Water 191 16.6 Types of Gas Migration 192 16.6.1 Molecular Diffusion Mechanism 193 16.6.2 Discontinuous–Phase Migration of Gas 195 16.6.3 Minimum Height of Gas Column Necessary to Initiate Upward Gas Movement 198 16.6.4 Buoyant Flow 199 16.6.5 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 200 16.6.6 Gas Columns 201 16.6.7 Sample Problem 2.2 (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company) 203 16.6.8 Continuous–Phase Gas Migration 204 16.7 Paths of Gas Migration Associated with Oilwells 207 16.7.1 Natural Paths of Gas Migration 209 16.7.2 Man–Made Paths of Gas Migration (boreholes) 211 16.7.3 Creation of Induced Fractures during Drilling 213 16.8 Wells Leaking Due to Cementing Failure 217 16.8.1 Breakdown of Cement 217 16.8.2 Cement Isolation Breakdown (Shrinkage—Circumferential Fractures) 217 16.8.3 Improper Placement of Cement 220 16.9 Environmental Hazards of Gas Migration 222 16.9.1 Explosive Nature of Gas 222 16.9.2 Toxicity of Hydrocarbon Gas 224 16.10 Migration of Gas from Petroleum Wellbores 227 16.10.1 Effect of Seismic Activity 228 16.11 Case Histories of Gas Migration Problems 228 16.11.1 Inglewood Oilfield, CA 230 16.11.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA 231 16.11.2.1 Belmont High School Construction 233 16.11.3 Montebello Oilfield, CA 234 16.11.3.1 Montebello Underground Gas Storage 234 16.11.4 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA 235 16.11.4.1 Playa Del Rey underground Gas Storage 235 16.11.5 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA 238 16.11.5.1 Ross Dress for Less Department Store Explosion/Fire, Los Angeles, CA 238 16.11.5.2 Gilmore Bank 240 16.11.5.3 South Salt Lake Oilfield Gas Seeps from Gas Injection Project 241 16.11.5.4 Wilshire and Curson Gas Seep, Los Angeles, CA, 1999 241 16.11.6 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA 241 16.11.7 El Segundo Oilfield, CA 244 16.11.8 Honor Rancho and Tapia Oilfields, CA 244 16.11.9 Sylmar, CA — Tunnel Explosion 244 16.11.10 Hutchinson, KS — Explosion and Fires 247 16.11.11 Huntsman Gas Storage, NE 247 16.11.12 Mont Belvieu Gas Storage Field, TX 248 16.11.13 Leroy Gas Storage Facility, WY 248 16.12 Conclusions 249 References and Bibliography 252 17 Subsidence as a Result of Gas/Oil/Water Production 261 17.1 Introduction 261 17.2 Theoretical Compaction Models 264 17.3 Theoretical Modeling of Compaction 270 17.3.1 Terzaghi’s Compaction Model 272 17.3.2 Athy’s Compaction Model 274 17.3.3 Hedberg’s Compaction Model 275 17.3.4 Weller’s Compaction Model 275 17.3.5 Teodorovich and Chernov’s Compaction Model 276 17.3.6 Beall’s Compaction Model 277 17.3.7 Katz and Ibrahim Compaction Model 277 17.4 Subsidence Over Oilfields 279 17.4.1 Rate of Subsidence 281 17.4.2 Effect of Earthquakes on Subsidence 282 17.4.3 Stress and Strain Distribution in Subsiding Areas 283 17.4.4 Calculation of Subsidence in Oilfields 286 17.4.5 Permeability Seals for Confined Aquifers 289 17.4.6 Fissures Caused by Subsidence 290 17.5 Case Studies of Subsidence over Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 292 17.5.1 Los Angeles Basin, CA, Oilfields, Inglewood Oilfield, CA 292 17.5.1.1 Baldwin Hills Dam Failure 294 17.5.1.2 Proposed Housing Development 297 17.5.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA 297 17.5.2.1 Belmont High School Construction 297 17.5.3 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA 299 17.5.3.1 Playa Del Rey Marina Subsidence 299 17.5.4 Torrance Oilfield, CA 301 17.5.5 Redondo Beach Marina Area, CA 302 17.5.6 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA 303 17.5.7 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA 305 17.5.8 Wilmington Oilfield, Long Beach, CA 306 17.5.9 North Stavropol Oilfield, Russia 318 17.5.10 Subsidence over Venezuelan Oilfields 324 17.5.10.1 Subsidence in the Bolivar Coastal Oilfields of Venezuela 325 17.5.10.2 Subsidence of Facilities 328 17.5.11 Po–Veneto Plain, Italy 335 17.5.11.1 Po Delta 336 17.5.12 Subsidence Over the North Sea Ekofisk Oilfield 343 17.5.12.1 Production 345 17.5.12.2 Ekofisk Field Description 346 17.5.12.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects 348 17.5.13 Platform Sinking 348 17.6 Concluding Remarks 350 References and Bibliography 351 18 Effect of Emission of CO2 and CH4 into the Atmosphere 361 18.1 Introduction 361 18.2 Historic Geologic Evidence 363 18.2.1 Historic Record of Earth’s Global Temperature 363 18.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Carbon Content on Global Temperature 366 18.2.3 Sources of CO2 370 18.3 Adiabatic Theory 373 18.3.1 Modeling the Planet Earth 373 18.3.2 Modeling the Planet Venus 375 18.3.3 Anthropogenic Carbon Effect on the Earth’s Global Temperature 380 18.3.4 Methane Gas Emissions 383 18.3.5 Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions 385 References 385 19 Fracking in the USA 389 Appendix A: Chemicals Used in Fracking 729 Appendix B: State Agency Web Addresses 907 Bibliography: 911 Index 913