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Notes on Contributors xiii Preface  xvi Acknowledgments  xxiii 1.  The Changing Nature of National Security 1 Introduction 2 1.1 Foundations of American Security Policy 2 1.1.1 Geopolitics at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century 3 1.1.2 National Security and World War II 6 Self–Check  8 1.2 Security in the Cold War Era 8 1.2.1 Bipolarity versus Multipolarity 10 1.2.2 Containing Communism  12 1.2.3 Non–Communist Threats  16 Self–Check  17 1.3 Security in the Post–Cold War Era: Pre–9/11 17 1.3.1 Changing Threats 18 1.3.2 New Conflicts, New Responses 18 1.3.3 Reorganization of National Security Policy 20 Self–Check  21 1.4 National Security and Terrorism: Post–9/11 21 1.4.1 Globalization and Geopolitics 22 1.4.2 The Bush Administration’s Global War on Terrorism 24 1.4.3 The Obama Administration’s New National Security Strategy 26 1.4.4 Homeland Security and National Security 27 Self–Check  28 Summary  29 Key Terms 30 Assess Your Understanding 35 Summary Questions 35 Applying This Chapter 36 You Try It  37 2.  Reassessing the All–Hazards Perspective  38 Introduction 39 2.1 Natural Disasters: Things We Can Expect to Happen  39 2.1.1 The History of Natural Disasters in the United States 40 2.1.2 Natural Disaster Response  41 2.1.3 Natural Disasters in a Post–9/11 World 44 Self–Check  46 2.2 Accidental Hazards: Things We Can Try to Prevent 46 2.2.1 History of Accidental Hazards in the United States 46 2.2.2 Accidental Hazard Prevention and Response 48 2.2.3 Accidental Hazards in a Post–9/11 World 50 Self–Check  51 2.3 Man–Made Hazards: Things We Hope Don’t Happen  51 2.3.1 History of Man–Made Disasters Caused by Human Error in the United States 52 2.3.2 Man–Made Disaster Mitigation and Response 53 2.3.3 Man–Made Disasters in a Post–9/11 World  55 Self–Check  56 2.4 Reassessing the All–Hazards Perspective and Disasters  56 Self–Check  59 Summary  59 Key Terms 60 Assess Your Understanding 62 Summary Questions 62 Applying This Chapter 63 You Try It  64 3.  Us Homeland Security Interests         65 Introduction 66 3.1 What Is Homeland Security? 66 3.1.1 The Merging of Traditions 67 3.1.2 Prevailing Homeland Security Theories 71 Self–Check  76 3.2 Additional Context for Homeland Security 77 3.2.1 Urban Versus Rural 77 3.2.2 Technologies 78 3.2.3 Political and Economic Factors 79 3.2.4 Security Versus Civil Liberties 81 Self–Check  84 3.3 Homeland Security Enterprise  84 3.3.1 Federal Partners 85 3.3.2 State and Local Partners 90 3.3.3 Whole Community Partners 91 Self–Check  97 3.4 Revisiting the All–Hazards Approach 98 Self–Check  100 Summary  101 Key Terms 101 Assess Your Understanding 105 Summary Questions 105 Applying This Chapter 106 You Try It  108 4.  Understanding Threat Assessments     109 Introduction 110 4.1 Background on Threat Assessments and Risk Management 111 4.1.1 Risk Management and Threat Assessment from the All–Hazards Perspective  111 4.1.2 Assessing Threats and Civil Liberties  113 4.1.3 Homeland Security Risk Management Doctrine  114 Self–Check  116 4.2 A General Framework of Analysis: What to Assess 116 4.2.1 The Disaster Impact Process 117 4.2.2 Pre–Impact Conditions 117 4.2.3 Event–Specific Conditions 120 4.2.4 Final Thoughts on What to Assess  122 Self–Check  122 4.3 A Matrix Approach: How to Assess 123 4.3.1 Risk Matrices  124 4.3.2 Composite Exposure Indicator 127 4.3.3 HAZUS 128 4.3.4 Vulnerability Assessments 128 4.3.5 Threat and Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment 129 4.3.6 Final Thoughts on How to Assess 130 Self–Check  133 4.4 The Whole–Community Approach of the National Preparedness System 133 4.4.1 Prevention  136 4.4.2 Protection 137 4.4.3 Mitigation 137 4.4.4 Response  139 4.4.5 Recovery 140 Self–Check  143 Summary  144 Key Terms 144 Assess Your Understanding 148 Summary Questions 148 Applying This Chapter 148 You Try It  150 5.  Critical Infrastructure Security, Emergency Preparedness, and Operational Continuity            .151 Introduction 152 5.1 Defining Critical Infrastructure 152 5.1.1 Defining the Sectors 153 5.1.2 Information Sharing and Analysis Centers  154 Self–Check  157 5.2 Known Threats to Critical Infrastructure 157 5.2.1 Natural Hazard Threats 158 5.2.2 Terrorism and Human Threats  162 5.2.3 Nontraditional Aviation Technology (NTAT) 165 5.2.4 Cybersecurity Threats 166 Self–Check  168 5.3 Risk Identification, Analysis, and Management 169 5.3.1 Inventory and Critical Assets and Functions 169 5.3.2 Intelligence Functions   .171 Self–Check  175 5.4 Emergency Operations and Continuity of Planning 175 5.4.1 Critical Infrastructure Protection Planning and the All–Hazards Perspective 175 5.4.2 Crisis Management Team 177 Self–Check  178 Summary  178 Key Terms 179 Assess Your Understanding 181 Summary Questions 181 Applying This Chapter 181 You Try It  182 6.  State Actors and Terrorism 183 Introduction 184 6.1 Defining Terrorism and Other Forms of Collective Violence 184 6.1.1 Legal Definitions of Terrorism 190 6.1.2 The Heyday of State–Sponsored Terrorist Groups 193 6.1.3 The End of the Cold War, Globalization, and the Decline of State Sponsorship 195 Self–Check  197 6.2 Contemporary State Sponsors of Terrorism 197 6.2.1 Iran 199 6.2.2 Sudan 201 6.2.3 Syria 203 Self–Check  205 6.3 International and Domestic Responses to State–Sponsored Terror 205 6.3.1 United Nations Security Council (UNSC) 205 6.3.2 Other Multilateral Efforts 206 6.3.3 US International Counterterrorism Strategy  208 Self–Check  210 Summary  211 Key Terms 214 Assess Your Understanding 216 Summary Questions 216 Applying This Chapter 217 You Try It  218 7.  Non–State Actors and Terrorism   219 Introduction 220 7.1 Explaining the Different Types of Non–state Actors 220 7.1.1 Defining Violent Non–state Actors              .220 7.1.2 Defining Non–state Terrorism 221 7.1.3 Terrorism and “Terrorists” 221 Self–Check  223 7.2 Non–state Terrorism as a Security Threat 223 7.2.1 Reasons for the Prevalence of Violent Non–state Actors 224 7.2.2 Non–state Terrorism as a Domestic and International Threat 225 7.2.3 Assessing the Threat Posed by Violent Non–state Actors 227 Self–Check  228 7.3 The Typology of Violent Non–state Actors 228 7.3.1 Political/Ideological Terrorism 231 7.3.2 Ethno–Nationalist or Separatist Terrorism 236 7.3.3 Religious Terrorism 240 7.3.4 Motivational Trends in Non–state Terrorism 247 Self–Check  248 7.4 Methods of Non–state Violence 248 7.4.1 Conventional and Unconventional Methods of Non–state Violence 249 Self–Check  255 7.5 International Strategies for Countering Non–state Violence 255 7.5.1 The Military Option 257 7.5.2 The Political Option 259 Self–Check  260 Summary  261 Key Terms 261 Assess Your Understanding 265 Summary Questions 265 Applying This Chapter 266 You Try It  267 8.  Cyber–Crime, Cyber–Terrorism, and Cyber–Warfare  268 Introduction 269 8.1 The Cyber Threat 269 8.1.1 Defining Cyber–Crime, Cyber–Terrorism, and Cyber–Warfare  271 8.1.2 What Can Cyber–Crime, Cyber–Terrorism, and Cyber–Warfare Do?  272 Self–Check  275 8.2 8.2 Assessing Capability and Intent 275 8.2.1 Who Can Conduct Cyber–Crime, Cyber–Terrorism, and Cyber–Warfare?  275 8.2.2 Tools of Cyber–Terrorism  279 Self–Check  281 8.3 Assessing Consequences 281 8.3.1 Why America Is Vulnerable to Cyber–Attacks 283 8.3.2 The Impact of a Cyber–Terrorist Attack 285 Self–Check  286 8.4 Determining Defenses against Cyber–Crime , Cyber–Terrorism, and Cyber–Warfare  286 8.4.1 The Government and Private Sector Response to Threats in Cyberspace 288 8.4.2 The US Military Response to Cyber–Warfare 291 8.4.3 The New Battlefields of Cyber–Warfare 295 Self–Check  296 Summary  296 Key Terms 297 Assess Your Understanding 301 Summary Questions 301   Applying This Chapter 302 You Try It  303 9.  Weapons of Mass Destruction and Disruption   304 Introduction 305 9.1 Chemical Weapons and Their Consequences  305 9.1.1 History of Chemical Weapons Use 307 9.1.2 Chemical Agents and Their Effects 308 9.1.3 The Threat of Chemical Weapons and Terrorism  311 Self–Check  313 9.2 Biological Weapons and Their Consequences 313 9.2.1 History of Biological Weapons Use 313 9.2.2 Biological Agents and Their Effects 315 9.2.3 The Threat of Biological Weapons and Terrorism  316 Self–Check  319 9.3 Nuclear and Radiological Weapons and Their Consequences 319 9.3.1 Radiological Materials and Their Effects 321 9.3.2 History of Nuclear Material Discoveries and Weapons Development  323 9.3.3 The Threat of Nuclear Weapons and Terrorism 324 9.3.4 Managing Radiological Incidents and Their Aftermath 327 Self–Check  329 Summary  329 Key Terms 330 Assess Your Understanding 332 Summary Questions 332 Applying This Chapter 333 You Try It  334 10.  Domestic Terrorism   335 Introduction 336 10.1 Terrorism in the United States: Across Time and Space 337 10.1.1 Eighteenth– to Twentieth–Century Terrorism 337 10.1.2 Late Twentieth–Century Terrorism  339 10.1.3 Early Twenty–First–Century Terrorism 340 Self–Check  344 10.2 Homegrown “Leaderless Resistance” and Foreign Terrorists  344 10.2.1 Understanding Leaderless Resistance  345 10.2.2 Origins of Lone Wolves 346 10.2.3 Assessing the Lone–Wolf Threat in the United States  347 10.2.4 Foreign Terrorist Organizations  349 10.2.5 Foreign Organizers 350 Self–Check  352 10.3 Crime and Terrorism 353 10.3.1 Why Would Terrorism and Crime Converge? 353 10.3.2 Where Terrorism and Crime Converge and Why It Matters 354 Self–Check  356 10.4 The US Domestic Response to Terrorism 356 10.4.1 Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) 357 10.4.2 The Lead Agency Approach and Counterterrorism 359 10.4.3 Police and Counterterrorism 360 Self–Check  364 Summary  365 Key Terms 366 Assess Your Understanding 369 Summary Questions 369 Applying This Chapter 370 You Try It  371 11.  Enablers of Mass Effects  372 Introduction 373 11.1 The Power of Information and Ideas 373 11.1.1 Ideas and Terrorism  376 11.1.2 Ideas and Disasters 378 Self–Check  381 11.2 Media and Terrorism 381 11.2.1 The Internet and Terrorism 382 11.2.2 Social Media, Terrorism, and Disaster Response 386 Self–Check  395 11.3 The Role of Educational Institutions 395 11.3.1 Alternative Educational Institutions  396 11.3.2 International Students in the United States 396 Self–Check  399 Summary  399 Key Terms 400 Assess Your Understanding 402 Summary Questions 402 Applying This Chapter 402 You Try It  404 12.  Homeland Security Intelligence  405 Introduction 406 12.1 Intelligence and Homeland Security 406 12.1.1 NYPD Surveillance of Muslim Communities 406 12.1.2 What Is Intelligence?  407 12.1.3 The Limited Historical Role of Intelligence in Domestic Affairs 411 Self–Check  412 12.2 The Structure of Intelligence Organizations  412 12.2.1 National–Level Intelligence Organizations 414 12.2.2 The Department of Homeland Security and Intelligence 418 12.2.3 State, Local, and Tribal Government 420 12.2.4 The Private Sector 422 12.2.5 Intelligence Collaboration 423 Self–Check  427 12.3 Methods of Collecting Intelligence Information  427 12.3.1 Human Intelligence Collection 429 12.3.2 Open–Source Intelligence Collection 430 12.3.3 Technical Intelligence Collection .432 Self–Check  436 12.4 Challenges to Homeland Security Intelligence 436 12.4.1 Balancing Liberty and Security in Homeland Security Intelligence 437 12.4.2 Intelligence Support to Disaster Relief  440 Self–Check  441 Summary  441 Key Terms 443 Assess Your Understanding 446 Summary Questions 446 Applying This Chapter 447 You Try It  448 13.  Homeland Security Planning and Resources    449 Introduction 450 13.1 Basics of Homeland Security Planning  450 13.1.1 Planning for Homeland Security Activities 451 13.1.2 Quadrennial Homeland Security Review 452 13.1.3 Expanding on the QHSR: The DHS Strategic Plan  454 13.1.4 Final Thoughts on the QHSR 456 Self–Check  457 13.2 Coordinating Homeland Security Planning 457 13.2.1 The Six–Step Planning Process  458 13.2.2 Performance Measurement: The Challenging “Art” of Measuring Success in Homeland Security Planning 461 13.2.3 SMART Measurement 462 Self–Check  463 13.3 The Logic Model: A Process Framework to Visually Demonstrate the Performance Measurement Process 463 13.3.1 Components of a Logic Model  464 13.3.2 Challenges in Performance Measurement 467 Self–Check  467 13.4 Education in Homeland Security   .468 13.4.1 Homeland Security Education Core Curricula  468 13.4.2 Research in Homeland Security: Trends and Future Thoughts  471 Self–Check  473 Summary  473 Key Terms 474 Assess Your Understanding 476 Summary Questions 476 Applying This Chapter 476 You Try It  478 References    479 Index 538