目次

Preface Acknowledgements The IPA Chart   1. Structures in languages 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Awareness of linguistic structure 1.3 Language diversity 1.4 What linguists do 1.4.1 Language-external evidence 1.4.2 Language-internal evidence 1.5 Morphosyntactic structure 1.5.1 Morphemes and words 1.5.2 Syntax: phrases, clauses and sentences 1.5.3 Some mismatches between phonology and morphosyntax in English 1.6 Changing sounds 1.7 Conclusion   2. The production of speech 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The lungs and the larynx 2.2.1 The vocal folds: the open and vibrating glottis 2.2.2 Devoicing and aspiration 2.2.3 Special types of phonation 2.2.4 Pitch 2.2.5 The glottal stop 2.3 The vocal tract 2.3.1 The pharynx 2.3.2 The nasal cavity 2.3.3 The mouth 2.4 Vowels 2.4.1 Monophthongs 2.4.2 Diphthongs 2.4.3 Nasalization 2.5 Consonants 2.5.1 Places of articulation 2.5.2 Types of constriction 2.6 Segmental durations 2.7 Complex consonants 2.7.1 Secondary articulations 2.7.2 Double articulations 2.7.3 Manner-contour consonants 2.8 Nonpulmonic consonants 2.9 Conclusion   3. Some typology: sameness and difference 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Varying complexity 3.3 Universals and implicational relations 3.3.1 Plain or special? 3.3.2 Avoiding complexity 3.3.3 A word of caution 3.3.4 Speech ergonomics 3.3.5 System gaps 3.4 Cultural and ambient factors in the development of sound systems 3.5 Conclusion   4. The varying shapes of sounds and words 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Allophonic variation 4.3 Loanword adaptation 4.3.1 The process of nativization 4.4 Morpheme alternants 4.5 The underlying form 4.5.1 Choosing the underlying form 4.5.2 Grammars vs ‘dictionaries’ 4.6 Conclusion   5. A system of distinctive features 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Features for consonants 5.2.1 Major class features 5.2.2 Laryngeal features 5.2.3 Manner features 5.2.4 Place of articulation features 5.3 Features for vowels 5.4 Redundant vs contrastive features 5.5 Complex segments 5.6 Conclusion   6. Making the form fit: serial rules or violable constraints? 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Serial rule application 6.2.1 Rule formats 6.2.2 Serial rule ordering 6.3 Constraints 6.3.1 Tableaux 6.3.2 OT and loanwords 6.4 Serial rules or ranked constraints? 6.5 Conclusion   7. Lexical phonology, postlexical phonology and phonetic implementation 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Defining an intermediate level of representation 7.3 Lexical Phonology 7.3.1 Reference to morphological labels 7.3.2 Exceptions 7.3.3 Structure preservation 7.3.4 Native-speaker intuitions 7.3.5 Application across word boundaries 7.3.6 Lexical rules apply before postlexical rules 7.4 Reference to phonological information in the lexicon 7.5 Beyond surface representations 7.5.1 Models of implementation 7.5.2 Deciding between phonology and phonetic implementation 7.6 Conclusion   8. Between the segment and the syllable 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Syllabification and the Maximum Onset Principle 8.2.1 The Sonority Profile 8.3 Expanding the representations: hierarchies and autosegments 8.3.1 Skeletal slots 8.3.2 Autosegments 8.3.3 Unfilled and unassociated slots 8.3.4 Compensatory lengthening 8.4 Moras 8.5 Syllable-based generalizations 8.6 Post-MOP syllabification rules 8.7 Conclusion   9. Tones 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The inadequacy of a linear model 9.3 Word melodies 9.3.1 Language-specific association 9.4 Tone stability 9.5 Tonal morphemes 9.6 Accent 9.7 The phonetic implementation of tone 9.7.1 The vertical dimension: scaling 9.7.2 The horizontal dimension: phonetic alignment 9.8 Not by f0 alone 9.8.1 Voice quality 9.8.2 f0 perturbations and tone distribution 9.9 Conclusion   10. Word stress 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Primary stress, secondary stress and no stress in English 10.3 Basic dimensions of foot structures 10.3.1 Foot type 10.3.2 Aligning words and feet 10.4 Syllable weight 10.4.1 Uneven feet? 10.5 Stress clash 10.6 Unbounded systems 10.7 The roles of morphology 10.8 Interactions of stress with segments and tones 10.8.2 H-tones attracting stress 10.9 Conclusion   11. Phonology above the word 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Generalizations involving prosodic constituents 11.3 The Strict Layer Hypothesis 11.4 Factors determining prosodic phrasing 11.5 Prosody above the foot 11.5.1 The prosodic word 11.5.2 The phonological phrase 11.5.3 The intonation phrase 11.5.4 The phonological utterance 11.6 Deriving prosodic constituents 11.6.1 Clitics 11.6.2 The syntactic residue 11.7 Conclusion   References Language Index Subject Index